: 7 te : Ss : rie 2 NOEs 
>, See ee : tennant A. : ok eee ey ae, Con ee Pa, 


This book was originally the 


property of 
CHARLES WILLIAM NOBLE, Arch. 1895. 


It was a text book used in - 
classes taught by Professor 
Nathan Clifford Ricker, the 


translator of the text, 


The book was presented to the 
Ricker Library in 1951 by 


VERNON HAVEN NOBLE, A.E. 1929, 


a son of the original owner, 


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ESTHETIQS*OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE 4 


Chapter 1. Stone Masonry. - - - - - - - - = Page. 2. 
Chapter <. Brick Masonry. - += - = = - 2-2 2+ - = 18, 
Chapter External Plastering of Walls. - - Sir a BA y 
Chapter Wooden Walls. - - - = -‘-°- + = - = = = 2B. 
Chapter Half-Timbered Work.- - + - - --= --- 368.. 
Chapter Non-Vaulted Stone Cetlings.- - - - - = 38, — 
Chapter ~Wooden-Beam Ceilings.- - - - - = = + = 4l. 
Chapter Iron Ceilings, + =o -08:= - 4 - sos) ABS 
Chapter Visible Trugsed Roofs of [ron and Wood.. 47. 
“Chapter 10. Vaults.- - - - +--+ = + + + = = = sh) 48 
Chapter 11... Columns. - - - - 2-4 - 2:- = e+ = 486 
. Chapter 12, Plera, - - - - - 6 6s vr - aoe 8 a BG 
chaps 13. Entablatures of Stone, Wood, and Areas ee 


OOUO OB Ww 


» Chapter 14. Arches above Piers and Colume. - 
Chapter 15. Buttresses and Flying Buttressés. - 
, Chapter 16. Openings in Walls. - <= 2 - - 2 = 
ae Chapter. 17. Poors, = gigi = a ew 5a. soe ee 
Chapter 18 Tre antment of ildings in Stories. - 
Chapter.19. i eee a “5 se eee oe 
Chapter 20, lonst evion in Wari cue Materials. 
Chapter 2). ingsBui lk ae AGRE SE, tm ee 5 TRE ac 
Chapter 22.. Wells and #ountai ae pacha cadre Hak aeat 
Chapter £3. Monumentst - - - - pies ana ies aio fa me 


Say 


Se, fa Abridged Translation 
Ue, | 3 of 
Pe we REDTENBACHER VS: ARCHITEKTON IK 


“oN. Clifford Ricker. M, Arch. 6 i 
Professor of Architecture in the University of E1linele, 
) UNIVERSITY BLUE PRINT. 
Champaign. _ 
: | ti. 


Wd 


a CHAP, 1. STONE MASONRY. 3 We As de: 
General Definitions and Proposed Treatment. | 

The Esthetics of Architecture is the Art of ‘eeat Tee: ana po? 
ectural forms in accordance with the principles of Applied Es- 
théeties. The Building is the Problem in Architecture, and it 
is employed for the most diverse purposes, ‘for. habitation, for 
public uses, religious worship, and commercial purposes. © | 

Passing from the’ special to the general, we will first treat. 
the various parts of the building, then the building itself,al_ 
ways tracing out the motive in a problem presented for artistes: 
ic treatment. Architecture begins with construction, ending 
when nothing remains to construct. We shall then attempt to | 
deduce the architectural motive from the construction, consid=— 
ering our subject. Lets technical, ihe vert Gak, and esthetical 
points of VASWE Oe ; 

The special topics to'be treated are the ‘se adunetal Behe: a 
a building; ee a alcstne and supporting walls, eeilings and - 
their isolated supports, floors, ‘openings,- treatment of build-— 
ings of several stories, and roots, Architectural construct. _ 
ions are executed in stone, brick, wood, metal, and their com 
binations. — cs ay eee Tae: 


he aay FP. a. Hoa wee y) LOS Ine. ‘gabe 
° Chapver: qd. Stone Masonry. ia ee 

Al} masonry is. formed by the superposition | ; 
ially or fully dressed natural or artificial stones, | 
coursed or courged joints, with the addition-oi mortar or oom 
ent, dowells or eramps fixed with lead, gulphur or cement, 
the. stones may. be joggzled or dovetailed togetney. © 

The first point | to be considered in ate mas 0 EY: is the bond 


Way as to make the stability of the wall with : | 
great as possible. The requirements of a good bond are; that / 
the upper stonés must always cover. the joints of those next be 
néath; that the external surface of the masonry, which is to 
be congidered as deing a covering for. the protection of the in 
terior, is firmly attached to the interior of the wall by oe 
bond -stoneg or headers, while the other stones or stretchers — 
do not extend deeply i into the wall, only serving to ede: the 
interspaces. : 
-L. «Rubble Masonry of Boulders. p 
Simplest and cheapest, though least durable kind of magonry, - 
and very common in coutth Le where gtone is quarried with aah 
difficulty; composed of boulders, found scattered in the BRA 
or of widely dispersed drift blocks, as in N. Germany, whers 
considerably quantities of granite are found, probably trais-_ 
ported from northern countries by ice floes ar Logberess | ae 
Still, ei “naga. of eetetenty round, Liew DESLAer#, wae 


y 


CHAP. 1, STONE MASONRY. BAS 3, 

much used in the low plain of N.E. Germany for mediaeval and la 
ter buildings, the broken surfaces placed outside, yet this im 
perfectly stable masonry is wanting in Holland. This rough 

rubble masonry requires the walls to be very thick, the inter- 
Spaces Deing filled with spalls, and requiring a large quanti- 
by of mortar. Several old churches in Brandenburg are entire. 
ly built of it, as well as the lower portions of towers, whose 
upper parts are of brick. This masonry may be somewhat stren- 
gthened and decorated by’oceasional courses of bricks, F.1, 


but is generally imperfect and only considered as permissible 
in exceptianal cases, oF as valuable for subordinate purposes 
on account of its primitive appearance. As a covering for 


railway PUGS HERR TF canals, etc., it becomes a kind of PAN Le 
2 Cyclopean Masonry. 

A nigher development of masonry of irregular stones, mostly 
uncut, though careiully selected and roughly prepared, is 
found in the polygonal masonry known as Cyclopean since the 
era of Pausanias, producing firm construction by means of cles. 
ely interfitting polygonal blocks. Its nature and existence ~ 
depend‘on the fact that it is only suited for uncoursed stones 
quarried in irregular masses It was frequently employed in 
ancient times in Greece, Asia Minor,. and Italy, for city walls 
fortifications, and royal fortresses, perhaps because the rene 
val of one or more stones would not ecause'the fall of the mas- 
onry. Semper with justice called attention to the existence 
in it of arched construction in a concealed form The walls 
sometimes have a thickness of 26 ft., the largest blocks méas- 
uring about 10 ft. Cyelopean meeonry Was even e6mployed in Gre 
cian temples, as proved b¥ an example from the Temple of na 
is at Rhamnus , & part of the side walls béing shown in Fig. 
Figs. 3 and 4 béing specimens cf the wad ts filling the, es 
between side walls of the vestibule; it is evident that tne 
stones are here fitted together witn the greatest care, to Oob- 
tain unity of eftect and great variety; this was erected at 
the time of the complete development cf Doric architecture, 

In very recent times, this masony has been executéd in graniép 
porphyry or volcanic stones, and irregulariy broken limestone, 
and again employed for walls, when an unusual appearance of 
stability and primitiveness was desired, as ior retaining , _ 
Walls oi tepraces; as in the substructure of the Walhalla, tne 
Black Forést Railway, and in the fortifications of Verona, a 
specimen of which is given in Fig. 5. The Quay walls and {ict 
ifications 6f Cologne, built of basalt and trachnyte, are sone- 
what similar, being composed of Tong columnar polygonal prisms 
Similar polygonal masonry of basalt is to be found in the Cas- 
tle of M&nzenberg in Wetterau. Polygonal masonry composed of 


t 


ne 


“ee 


SE 


. wy - 
. . 


CHAP. I. STONE MASONRY, | | Jee E. A 4 
smal] blocks with dimensions not exceeding 2 ts uneut and. 
chinked with spalls, are found in Saxon ed constructions, w- 
sing diorite from near Pfau. Sp dae 

All these kinds of polygonal masonry are. in form based on 
the mosaic system, composed of irregular elements, and produce 
@ very pleasing eifect if properly executed, by their unity ¢f 
idega combined with great variety. — The Romane: always employed 
masonry composed of quité irregular small stones bedded in 6x- 
cellent mortar, which caused the extraordinary strength. Atos 
thia kind of masonry, the ‘Opus incertum'. The angles and éd- 
ges of the masonry were usually See nen by oh aS ie oh ale 
by blocks of cut stone. 

[If we examine the two specimens from the renp te of “Themis , 
it is evident that this polygonal masonry fails in two very im: 
portant particulars, which makes if inapplécable to isolated 
pillars, and also requires the angles of the walls to be oe 
gthened by another kind of masonry. The lack of horizontal 
courses would cause pillars of polygonal masonry to separate 
by sliding, and as the masonry tends to yield, a horizontal 
thrust acts on the inclined joints, which must be resisted by 2 
firm abutments. A pleasing specimen of polygonal masonry must 
show as great variety as peasible, yet retaining a decided un-- 
ion.of the elements; it is adapted to the greatest possible va. 
riety in form of the. elements, with limitation. of their dimen- 
sion within extremes not too Botan’ sy the (greater. limit fixed 
by the nature of the material, the lesser’ determined by the. 
condition that the masonry ta wok appear ‘ae if. composed rad ae 
large blocks, whose fnterstices are filled with amall ones. 
As the individual blocks are subject to transverse strain and 
erughing, their widths should not differ too much from their ‘ 
hetghts. It is proper to sometimes form reentrant angles. on. 
long stonés, ‘put to use. right or. acute angles but seldom, also” 
to avoid the meeting of more or. less than 3. joints at a common: 
point, and to make moderate use of. triangular and. trapezoidal — 
blocks, excluding all horizontal and vertical joints; these’ i 
points should not be neglected. in order to enhance variety of 
effect. It appears unnecessary. to require that. polygonal mas- 

onry should only beé employed for walls. having some batter, sO. 
that‘a single stone might not fall from the surface of the See 
Wall, bécaug e polygonal masonry ak seldom eee without ate 
so uging comer: Or mortar... oh | 
fo cut the face of Cyclopean masonry. es an eet ravagances ee 
draft may be cut around the margin of each block,.as wide as 
an ordinary chisel, but to dress the entire surface is an hl 
fence against good taste,. except in the rudést manner. “The 
principal labor should be. devoted to caberat selection ot tne 
> es , ! ! 


é i \, 
o 


CHAP. 1, STONE MASONRY. — Ros ER AL a 
stones and to exactly fitting them together, all etse being of 
small importance. If polygonal masonry was exceptionally em- 
ployed with finely wrougnt details and polished stone surfaces. 
as in the Temple of Themis at Rhamnus, this may be due to tYra- 
ditional-symbolical causes. . Polisned surfaces of Cyclopean m ~ 
sonry are opposed to its character OF massive strength and. 
primitiveness. Other considerations apply to street pavements © 
like those of Florence andsRome, phese being aa tds mosaics, . 
and not structures. — a -: / iy) 

A kind of masonry was employed th dpeolan architecture, int- 
ermediate between Cyclopean and rubble masonry, the joints be-— 
ing partly inclined and partly horizontal. An example from. 
Mantinea-is given in Fig. 6 with: two others” after Viollet- le~ 
Duc, which are interesting, though seldom imitated now. Many 
kinds. of stone break witna approximately rectangular reentrant 
angles as in Fig.7; others have parallel beds and oblique ends 
as in: Fig. Bs: these natural beds and ends were properly ugéd 
for obtaining a varisd effect dn appearance without too much. 
elaboration. Engineering construction, aceus tomed | to work on) - 
a lapge scale and required to consider bate Minds OFS: parhaye eas 
use such masonry to advantage. aly ee oo ee 

3. ,Rubble Masonry of ‘Quarried Stones. thd ee. 

While the rubble masonry just described was EO, of ato. 
nes of quite irregular form, quarried ‘pubble masonry te pullt =. 
of stones with beds and laid in courses just as_ they come from ~ 
the quarry, or after very rude preparation. — The stability: OL as 
masonry of irregular stones depends on tae careful filling of be 
all interstices with stone spalls and good mortar; that of Lya05 
clopean masonry on the exact fitting together of many plocks; i 
while that of quarried pubble masonry is ‘dependent on regular-— 
ity Of bond, horizontal. position of beds, breakin ‘of vertical ~ 
joints, and the use of long headers. This ‘kind o masonry is es 
appropriate for stratified sandstone and limestone, and for 
slaty sedimentary: and yOlcanic rocks. -No acute: angles- or ed 
ges or oblique joints are jound in it; the joints must thereas 
féreibe preperly filled with mortar, or. the wal] must bencest- 
ed. with it, if a smooth and uniform surface is desired; the - 
angles and ‘edges must bé strengthened with brickwork or ashlar 
masonry, Fig.9, if they are to appear sharp. and distinct, one 
to be strongly coherent. — 

As in Cyclopean, so in all coursed masonry, the separate | 
-gtones are only subject to ecrusing, though this is absolutely 
true only of entirely homogenous masonry with all. beds neriaae 
tal. To prevent fracture of a stone, its length should sche ao 
eeed 3 to 5 times its depth or height. tues Gaergs 

Roman and med tae a builders were sone of using Opus apiece: 


4 


‘ CHAP. 1. STONE MASONRY, | Ge ahr ies Ai. Oy 

tum" or herring-bone bond for external surfaces of walls built 
of ordinary coursed masonry. That show in Fig.10 is composed — 
of a partly from river beds,’ partly quarried stones or 
bricks, and was employed . from the late Roman mention uneLd gu 
the 14 th céntury, : 
, The stability of the bond paca small, sig cient gouradar ef 

bricks aré placed at regular: intervals. The example Fig 11, ; 
is found in the facing of the walls of Ravenna, erected by ey 
Theodoric in the 6 th century; the masonry being built of sto. 
neg from the bed of the Adige mixed with coursés of pricks. 
During the Middle Ages, this bond. was commen in baronial cas- 
tles and ts. occasionally found in churches; in the Castle of 
Hohenrataia only quarried stones is used, Fig. 12. Other examp-— 
leg are found from the 10 th to the 12 th eeénturiés in the a 
Walls of Fulda, built in 1168, in Regensburg, Wart zburg, etc. , 
none later than the 12 th century. This Opus spicatum Was | 
long used in brick. construction, 2s.in mediaeval brick build-— | 
ings in N. Germany. We give two. examples of mediaeval Opus spi - 
catum, Fig. 13 from St. Ambrose at Milan, and Fig.14 fron vero: 
fragments ef cylindrical tiles being used in the. deat ee 

_ The angles cf this form of masonry always require strengthen — 
ing by ashlar blocks or brick quoins with horizontal beds. It — 
produces the eifect of great stability Sire c Uaaa oe rather 
than that of great strength. x | 

By the use of quarried stones wae parallel. pede. some. “kinda. 
eof bonds are possible in addition to those ordinarily ee 
were us@ed during the Middle Ages, and may still be recommended 
as a simple means of increasing the variety of appearance of 
the masonry; such’as quarried rubble masonry with courses of — 
different heights, like the tufa masonry of the portions of SS 
Gereon at Cologne built in the 1] th century, as well as,the - 
substructure of the Castle of Meissen, begun in 1478,. Figs. 15 
and 18. All these species of masonry are suited to local eon- 
ditions, to the materials heh dk soicse hr tab and to. ‘the. Un pa Re: fo) 
which they may be applied. iG 

A mods of treating quarried rubble masonry, ‘employed ‘in ane! : 
Roman period and imitated during the early Middle Ages, deser- . 
ves mention, and consists of the ugé of stones with bd dea s “4 
beds and without true joints, like tufacecus limestone; very 
thick joints are filled with mortar to make the mas onry even — 
and smooth, “regular, joints béing afterwards incised in-the 
soft mortar, Fig. 17. This kind of masonry is found until the 
12 th century in walls of churches, fortresses and fort thea 
tions, and is still used near Evreux, where only yolcanta 2OER' 
is commonly ‘employed. : : 
If mediaeval eat rubble masonry Was strengthened by ash 


at 
, a : a 


CHAP. 1. STONE MASONRY. ag ee ay OES: 
lar blocks at its angles in both plastered and unplastered 
Walls, it was usual to have no vertical end joints between 
these blocks and the wall, but irregular ones, Fig.18. This 
gives a picturesque character to the masonry, to be sought in 
all ¢conomically constructed buildings as the only means for 
obtaining a simple and esthetic treatment. The feiiccance ao 
first abandoned this method and constructed masonry of a very 
regular series of ashlar blocks. All kinds of irregular mason 
ry, eompritsing Cyclopean and the kinds forming a: transition, to — 
ashlar masonry, have a character of simplicity, necessity! and 
economy; Roman and Renaissance builders applied to. them, as 
well] as to rougnly wrought ashlar, the term *pustic® (rural Sone 
boorish) as a distinetion-from the regular and smoothly drés-— 
sed masonry of the more prominent buildings in ‘cities. Howevy- 
er inappropriate this” tern, it is. ‘not. easily replaced by a bet 
ber one. To soften the effect. of this unpretending put. pictu- | 
‘presque magonry by subduing the joints, either. by making them 
aS thin as possible, or by giving the mortar the same eccolor as 
tas stone, is the error of a pédant, never ‘found. in any good 
architectural style. The irregularities of the masonry requi- 
rs a good bed of mortar, and this. bed. must “be visible as evi- 
dence of the durability of ‘the masonry. To subordinate ne «oe 
joints is to dispense with the only means of obtaining a ¢ert- | 
ain variety in appearance without too. great cost, . Unity must — 
b& gought, not in uniformity of appearance, ‘pus. pas the princt- 
ples controlling varie®y, and which must be apparent, unless 2 
the work is to appéar insipid, characterless and weak, quali- 
ties unfortunately now too eormmon1¥ preferred | ‘to the picturesd 
tne natural and the strong. — at ght : 

4, Ashlar Masonry oi Small Stones. 

A mode” of construction common in al! Roman provinces” ae the 
die-work, a kind of inerustation on walls, composed of poatt . 
pyramidal stones 3 to 4, rarely 6 to 7 in. square, sét itn — 
broken joints and in a very thick coat of mortar, Fig. 19. : 
This die-work is at intervals interrupted by courses of brick- 
work deeply bonded inte the. wall. This. masonry ay especially 
common in Gallo-Roman buildings, ‘put long survived | the fall of 

the Roman Empire in central France, the Clara Tower in. Cologne 
and the imperial palace at Trev es are the only known examples. 
of its occurrence in Germany. | 

Tne Roman net-work or Opus Seeianiabi oe aliet to this abe 
work, and is composed of pointed pyramids of tufa iS .1-8: to : yee 
in. square, | Fig. 40; Fig. #1 is a specimen from Pompeii. ~The 
Opus reticulatum and die-work are peculiarly decorative ee 
for facing concrete masonry, but are Bet Gen, used in modern ti-. 
mes , except for pees streots. re eRe eel a, eee 


ee Nh 


ies aa i fice ie oa one 
CHAP. 1. STONE MASONRY, | B.A. 82° 

A Kind of masonry composed cf small and regular, though rude. 
ly wrought oblong stones with thick joints, was in common use 
among thé Romans; it was much uséd in mediaeval buildings in | 
France and Germany, and is still preferred in countries furn- ~ 
ishing easily wrought materials, like Brohlthal tufa and the ~ 
vari6égated sandstone of the middle and upper Bhine PEOVER oes. 

5. Ashlar Masonry of Large. Stone... 

Ashlar masonry proper requires consideration in ‘three ways; 
tne mode of preparing the stones, the bond, end. the means of. 
fixing and clamping the ashlars vy ih aig: : 

@. Mode of working. - bane i | ea 

[f the blocks of stone are quarried wito. powder, fine, or by 
a series of driven wedges, they are worked to blocks of pres-.. 
cribed dimensions with approximatély rectangular surfaces,  — 
stil] rough and uneven, so that about an iach must be dressed 
Off each side to obtain a true surface, the ‘working inch’. 

Tne first dressing is done at the quarry; the stone being laid 
on a low bench, larger projeeticns are _knecked igs with the 
sleige a, Fig. 22. Toe suriace ig then ‘dressed with the. iin. a 
to show parallel strokes. “The axe or poset C ig then uged, “th 
tne axe having a long handle and beiag us ed in both Handa) 
The point ig struck witn the wooden mallet d, or with a hammer 
in dressing granite. When the pointing. as. finished, the. surt- 
ace should be tolerably true, The top ig. ‘then laid. off ia ree. 
tangular’ form, and the projections. of the ‘@dges” ‘beyond these | 
lines remoy 6d By the pi sder. cor pit aiine ts The four % 


and tried with tne- square, 
ed from their edges toward | thet. centres. 
termed a pointed ashlar, ; 


dress ing, of the dd pay: wf th: the. “eninal: Taper an ier” or axe, “mak- | 
ing a draft along the edges by fine parallel strokes, «four a3 3 
drafts forming the margins. of the stone. The pointed surface | 
of the asnlar is dressed with the erandall ‘b, producing a poin 
ted appearance. Only faces of ashlars.are: usually crandalled, , 
beds and joints being usually only. pointed. — ie case. cf hard 
stone, as granite, syenite, ete. the. bush-hammer. ¢ is used in 
place. ef the crandall, and {gs / entirely. of Laas paving ‘16 wo. 
40 or more pyramidal points. eyae 
The third opsration in finely dressing’ shone. is. ‘gutting with 
ne broad chisel d, held iff the leit hand like the. point, and. 
bruck with the mallet, producing fine lines on the surface. 
rafts alons are chiselled gometimea:, ThE furtoner smoothing 
i all ashler ts done by. finer eAiaed Tey lee ti y, apy se 
ia also sometimes well peljaned. hana * ee 


igh Vr 


* ie 


; _ CHAP. 1, STONE MASONRY. : Cb AAA ieee Mg Ps SO, 
"Rough hammering, pointing, drafting and crandalling, chisel- 
ling and rubbing, are therefore the Srey methods of prepar- 
ing ashlars and cut stone work, oe 
From the mode of working here ‘explained are derived the ‘gug- 
gestive points for treatment of ashlar and cut stone, cespec- 
ially of their faces. It is evident that the bed and end joi’ 
joints must be pointed sufficiently fine to lie moderately 
eclosé on €ach other, so as to avoid the usé@ of too much mortar 
A simple dressed margin is the simplest mode of working ash- 
lars to obtain external effect, and. the least that can be ac- 
cepted: the surface then receives the treatment. suitable for 
eut stone, this depending on’ the specific peculiarities of the 
| material employed, ee ‘Adana its. eonchassal Bee or 
nal appearance, go. that. ane watentay hass es proper mode of 
dressing. As: the chisel used for drafted margins has— a, fixed — 
breadth for both large: and small stones, this modifies the ef- 
fect of the ashlars, so that large blocks” appear to. have nar- 
row margins and small blocks wide ones. — ‘The projection of the 
roughly wrought central boss varies according to dimensicna of 
the stone, and tne. purpose to which it. is. to be applied. They 
are so great. in the Pitti Palace at Florence, that ‘one 311 Sapa a 
find shelter from the rain beneath them. This. simplest mode | 
of dressing will. always be satisfactory when. economy ef labor | 
is required, as in bag ement vee manutactories,, engineering 
works, fortifications, etc. ; 
Pointing surfaces ig the second mode of vraqtman: “pointed 
faces of ashlars. contrasting with. ‘those. roughly dressed, when 
Qe sabia peat in mode of cutting is desired to. express” ‘o "differ 
ent and finer quality of masonry. Especially common | aH the. 7 
treatment: of the main portion of a structure, Tf. tas base Of. ~ 
a@ building be of. ashlarg’ witha. rough, strongly ‘projecting Dees " 
ses, the lower story may b@ composed of pointed ashlars. — ‘ 
According to tne greater or less projection ef tne posses of 
ashlars and their more of less fine pointing, several grades 
aré possible in the appearance of. the masonry. In. bota ‘point- 
ed asnlar and that with bosses, the Graited margin. are neces- 
sary to clearly mark the joints of the ashlars, aa well as to 
give the ashlar a. general appearance or having. at. least recei- 
ved the minimum preparation permissidle. If the drafted marg- 
in be entirely apart age) the ee Perea: tts. Chanechyetaste el 
element of form Jie: 
Crandalling the sanrace of ae is yak a ‘transition or in- 
termediate step between pointing and chiselling, and. should. “4 
not be used in architectural work, beacuse not. ‘beautiful. The 
stone should be chiselled, if the means admit; if not, 1b aes 


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ina ae 1 EL le ee he oy al per Sie 


CHAP, ee STONE MASONRY. eres a! ee Ez ae 10. 
should then be leit rough or fine votes. ‘Bush-hammering for ~ 
very hard stones is the extreme limit-of smoothness. usually 
permissible, especially in engineering’ and fortifieaation. Fi- | 
nally, ghiselling is usually the highest limit. of. preparation 3 
possible for fine-grained stones and the best cut gtone; the 
drafted margins almost entirely disappear, the. chisel marks CS) 
ing chipped away. Stone is very seldom rubbed, except fin 
_ grained material of good color, taking: a good: polish. ‘(Rubbed 
“stone is much used in the U.S. for good buildings in cities, 

because requiring léss oe labor, less affected by. strikes 
etc. dust at present, Richardson pitcneiaced masonny of irre 
ular squared ashlars is most in vogue, 1 baM, ade so scgeaieie will 
doubtless soon be in favor again). ago ne. : 

In contrast to the ashlaw of the wall, Sa wh iahe may: be use 
the most diverse. modes of trea tment for characterizing the ma- 
sonry, it ig natural that on moulded or ornamental cut gto 
projecting bosses are to be avoided; the best cut stone t 
ings, ornamental blocks, Cee, are wrought from fine- r, 
stone as a rule, for which ‘a more delicate treatment is guita- 
ble; if one can economize et ae similar ashlar pees hi 


nie os nd x | : 
lets in bad taste tO form bosses ~ varenttecta 


ted, cone 
and the Porta Niare at Geyuy es. ‘this ‘abd: of “pulad ine es i 
part traditionally retained in Romanesque of tne 10 th to the 
13 th centuries. The ashlars and most architectural feature 
were set finished, as furnished by the masons’ lodges, only a 
spectal portions, like bases and capitals of columns, and han 
of the more elaborate decorations of cornices, being wrought: 
after the setting of . the stone, Hence, many. tga ‘Romanes¢ 
buildings have also remained unfinished. se 

During the. Cothie period from the “ha th. to. the 16 th cent) 
rics,#cut stone work was always finished in the masops’ “sheds 
and Wag therefore get in 2 perfect form © URenaissance mas ters 

after the® middle of the «lB th eéntury followed the ancient . 
method in & peculiar way; not having a- thorough eres a 
classic antiquity, due to numerous modern. scientific investi- 
gations, and therefore being unable to cofrectly explain all 
appearances, they accepted everything found in ancient build- 
ings in good faith, and uged it lt the same Saale assuming iné- — 
| | untiet = ot aaa 


Le ORAP oo 1s STONE MASONRY. ee CH acaane Ge es 
incomplete work to be finished and imitating Bn) this is” 
the explanation of many Renaissance peculiarities. 3 

Desiring to build economically and rapidly, we employ ‘gor x 
the substructure of 2 “building only the most indispensable 
eare, sO as to devote all our power and @rtistic skill to the 


: more: important portions of the. ‘building, as also done in all 


Smt nt ee 


ancient temples and. other | structures, The- first thing is to. 


Tae a layer of stones on a solid foundation, on which to. ‘er- 


ech tne building. — Gigantic blocks, with dimensions. surpassing _ 


“those of prehistoric monumapts ascribed to giants, were laid - 


in the temple terrace at Baalbec, blocks 68 ft. long and 14 ie 
high being used: it- is 6vident that beds were merely roughly : 
dressed and ‘margins: were drafted, leaving the projecting boss 
quarr y- faced, only removing its greatest projections. Romans 
inherited from past eras, and adopted the methods of’ all pre- 
ceding races, introducing them into ell countries under their 


sWay, so that we find ‘this Pusticated Siseape a us ed in all Ro<: 


man buildings. — ee eee 

During toe Middle Ae ele: ‘masonry with proj ect ing bésses 
Was merely used in fortifications, and is. usually rare; smooth 
masonry wag preferred during this period. It first ‘Eeappeared 


jin: thé 1b¢-th:. eentury in Florentine palaces, and. Was assumed to 
have been invented by the Etruscans, ancestors of the ‘Tuscans, 


itabeing made a special feature of the ‘Tuscan Renaissance , ole | 
ly tor this reason. ~ An attempt Was. mad é to harmonize the most | 
diverse modes of cutting stone with the orders of eolumns, Bo cy 
as by means of ashlar masonry to express the character of the — 
orders in the treatment of the mass of buildings, even without | 
the usé of columns or pilasters. This was at last carried so | 
far, that in imitation of unfinished Roman ‘buildings, columns 3 
and - pilasters were even composed | of rectangular or. eylindrical — 
ashlars with bossés, an error that should never'be made now. 

A special form of this eshlar masonry with bosses appears in 
fortification at the end of the 15 th century, the. epherical — 


boss, suggested by the use of artillery; Viollet-le-Duc gives 
an example from the Gate of the walls. of Vezelay, 1515- 1547. / 


Renaisaance architects invented diamond-panel led ashlars, in 


Whieh a drafted margin surrounds @ boss in form of a low pyra- — 


mid. If the blocks are square, they are called nail-head. — dn, 
Fig. 24 is an example of diamond -panelled ashlar masonry ‘from - 
a church in Naples; Fig. 25 is another example composed of al- . 
ternating ashlars with diamond panels and spherical ‘bosses, 


from the old Fort St.John at Florence. A variation of the ae 


tive tive of this panelled ashlar, which may be required. for” 
richer buildings, bases of monuments of polished stone, ete. 
consists in mOsettne the bi cts ates 26, and also. in trunca- 

, 2 sf poe: 


Ae Se 


CHAP, 1. STONE MASONRY. © ie Ws ea ee a Tee 
thaig the pyramidal bosses. Certain blocks, like corner stones 
of the base of a,monument, keystone of an arch; .8tc.,: should, 
be more ricnly moulded, put one must then be. careful to nor. 
approach too closely to the forms of wood -work, . 

A decorative treatment of the surface of the: sahiok uae 
and all over refined modes of cutting this, are peice 
as expending means for an improper purpose; for. the same. eoae 
of decorating the ashlars with ail kinds of niceties. in the. 
art style of the Barocco period, we may richly supply the nee! 
itecture with decorative or sculptured. ornament, Or we may ome 
ploy nobler material. Still, it should not be forgotten. ine 


purely decorative works, such as portals, monuments, oe 
that such decoration of the ashlars DY. ornamental Be aes may 
be permissible in exceptional GAH OSs ook pie to 


To mould the margins of the surfaces ‘Se tne: ashlars, ‘Leaving 
the bosses rough, is a contradiction: the rough bosses: are es- 
thetically justified by their pola. effect and. their economy eS 
if the means suffice for moulding the ashiars, 's prefer 
ble to changs the bosses into. diamond panels. é 
dietion appears like affectation, f 

The simplest means for causing the join sf tas st 
have a bold effect consists in -eitner making the Barres 
the ashlars project beyond the face of he wall, i 
angular joints enclosing the surface of each block, Fig. 27, a 
b, c, d, or in giving the joints a triahgu ax section, gin ing 
this behing the face of the wall, Fig. rie , one actual s Pug 
tural joint is formed by the bed. of the stone in t ; 
cas8, so that the ‘projecting ‘gurfaces ‘of: the ashlar protects © 
the joint from penetration of rain. water, To replace the 
ges of the projecting surface by chamfers, Aber ret fey 
coves or other mouldings, would. greatly increase the 3 
the ashlar masonry, but would also increase ‘the richness 0 
appearance of the joints, and is therefore to > limited — 
those parts of buildings, in which an increased r 
dients is desired, as in substructures, — 
corners and angles, etc. The joints” themselves, a 
ace of the wal! from which the ashlar. ae not ex- 
eeed the width of the chisel, and their width must bo cons tant 
if the effect be too slight in ‘case of Jarge. blocks, ‘the. joint 
can bé made wider outwards witn trapezoidal sections.” ‘Fig. 274 
 “‘Prisngular joints usually have a right-angled section when 
executed in the usual building materials; their effect is more 
marked if their surfaces make angles of 60. deg. with sach oth. 
er; Fig. 27 a, b, ¢c; when this diedral- angle exceéds 90 deg. ,” 
they appear broad and have a weak eifect. Fixed rules_ for thi 
proportions of ashlar joints cannot be given, mae their beval 


CHAP, iy STONE MASONRY, oF e7 us: sates B, A. i 
fect must always harmonize with the purpose for which they are 
employed. Taking the width of a chisel as a basis for a rich- 
ly moulded joint, Fig. 27 a, d, the smller fillets, chamfers 
and mouldings must have such dimensions as may be required for 
light and shade; and a varied alternation of proportions. - | 

To treat all ashlar joints as purely decorative, where no 
structural joint is required, concealing the rea} joints, is 
one of the greatest barbarisms borrowed from Barocco architéc- 
ture by modern architects. Architecture disappears with cOn- — 
struction; ons requires the otner, and one who dogs not under- 
atand how to dévelop the natures of the former from the latter, 
can never-equal mediaeval masters, nor those of the best Ren- 
aissance period, who were first of all good. constructors. 

The second gréat barbarism of modern times is the imitation 
of ashlar joints in stucco; cement plastering has no ‘imiting 
dimensions, as in cut stone, which is usually in courses of 18 
to 24 tn. height, but tts dimensions may be arranged at pleas- 
uré; henes, tn dividing up cement plastering, those dimensions 
and project tons should be used, which differ as widely as pos- 
siole from those of ashlar masonry. Stucco belongs to the 
plastic, hardening materials, whose treatment. should corres- — 
pond to the means. employed in producing its form Imitation _ 
of ashlars in stucco-work destroys and falsifies. the gtructu- 
ral meaning; one becomes accugtomed | to. ‘indefiniteness, and no. 
longer knows how to employ cut stone, trans terting bo. it the 
shapelessnesa of stucco whenever. possible. Hie } 

Finally, it should be rumembered, that for purely decorative. 
purposes,- the arrangement of ashlars in mosaic. patterns with — 
elements of like form ig not. excluded; on Palladio's— famous. ce 
Basilica at Vicenza is to be found | such ashlar masonry in mar-— 
bl6, in scale- like patterns; BPP s. for a ewetT beneath ARLES. 
Wg. eS Se x Ls Uae ; PO cue a 
b. Ashlar Bonds. re eees RI Coe eae Gee CO | 

The most natural and free ashlar bond, poth: best. and oad. | 
picturesque, is that in which the stones. are cut and set, just 
as Obtained from tae quarry, without attempting to arrange 
them in regular courses, or to make them of uniform height. 2 
Fig. 7 is a specimen of Grecian masonry, Vig. 29 being a simi- 
lar example of Roman masonry. in case of stones quarried with 
good beds, but net in long pieces, like porphyry, this random | 
ashlar bond is very appropriate, especially since it is one | 
méans of Obtaining economy, and also for usé in basés and. gub- 
structures, supports of all kinds, fortifications, eo ee 

A transition to regular ashlar bond consists in making the — 
courses of unequal, Fig. 30, or agqual height, Fig. 31, but. 
uging stones of different lengths, Bigas 8&0, 31s, “Since bate 


rr Sta 


iy 
\ 

. 

AP 


- CHAP, 1. STONE MASONRY. : oo BE. A. 1A 

BPE subject to transverse strain, the thinner blocks must also. 
be shortest to avotd fracture, and the higher ones may be lon-— 
gest, but generally, the length of the blocks should be as fur 

nished from the quarry. Roman, meddaeval, and Renaissance ar-_ 
Soh teeta always preferred this natural ashlar masonry, obtain- © 
ing a both picturesque and inexpensive. masonry. The correct 
practical principle ig to always work in accordance. with. the i 
matérials provided, so that. they may be employed for the most 
diverse purposes, as in case of the normal brick form, and - 
this principle prevailed from the Roman era until the 16 th ie 
century, the High Renaissance first introducing uniformity in 
neight of courses and lenght of stones, which Was customary in 
Grecian temples os ole es) . 

The bond of similar ashlars generally resembles that of brik 
masonry; the. proportional dimensions of the ashlars agpend on 
the materials used and on the height Of: courses; their Tengtn 
may vary in direct proportion to the. strength and height. Of. 

tne blocks. The simplest system of construction is. that, in a 
which the stones extend entirely pe he wall; then, a 


the courses may vary in height; » the length ¢ the gtones_ 
may vary; thus producing the Piers possible combinations — 
Fig. 32:a) courses of equal Melehts: Se vec Sohal 
b), courses of equal height, 1] length; c) 


courses of unequal height, 
of unequal height, stones of nequaa? Tenge. 

If a wall be compoged of square stone es, 
length is twice the side of the squar 
are possible, Fig. 34733: 6), . C S 
square; f), courses of unequal height, pe quare; g)., 
ses of equal .height, stones alternately Ss quar aa spionei 
courses of unequal ‘heigat, raat: ly. 

For economy, a, b, and g are preferable; bf me 
expensive and equa Lily. so; f and h are most dene oe: eon 1 thees 
Bonds b and g are most pleasing of. those least costly; ‘ats 
mog t pleasing of the more expensive, and é is most uniform ot 
all; f and h are dearer and ugly, put his most full of varie: 
ty, though appéaring too fanciful, to. excel the otners in idee’ 
ducing a pleasing effect by its variety, These. bonds,.with — 
stones extending through the wall, are nearly similar do those 
composed of s@parate bond stenés extending through: tne entire 
thickness, with other blocks only. occupying @ part of its — 
thickness, which is usually made up of two stretchers, Fig. 34 
i, k, of a space is left between them, afterwards filled witna 
ord inary masonry, Fig. 34 L. Preference. should. be given bot 

Fig. 34 k instead of Fig. 34 1, since the wall 1s wholly con- | 
structed of stones of equal. elas; ne lengta of a rite sar eRe) 


being determin 


> 


CHAP, a "STONE MASONRY. i Sire ae ke Ae: 1B. 
pefie determined by tne: aM ahgely of the. wall, one- hal f this 
being ite side. ae. 

It ig easy to see thas in case of fhe most commonly cep keeen 
bond, the greater the number of bond-gstones used, the greater — 
ig the labor and cost, though the wall is stronger; hence they 
are: sparingly uged, tyr the bond-stones. are to be madé promi- 
nent and evident, it- will be preferable for economy tojfinish. 
the stretchers witn projecting bossés on ‘their faces, cutting 
the ands of the headers smooth or treating them as. diamond pan 
els. The richest of all bonds here mentioned, h, also the 
most costly, is appropriately used for a royal palace or any 
similar building, and if a harder material ‘be. used FOr the." 
thinner than for the higher courses, there may be great varie-- 
ty, not only in. the form, but ‘also in the mode of ‘dressing the. 
stones, If we: wish to be gatrictly consistent, the low and a. 
blocks, subject to the ‘gréater. strains, should be: finished | 
with strongly projecting diamond panels in those places. ‘most 
severely strained; the small and less severely compresséd ‘bond 
stones might be decorated in any way, with. sunken | Posegssesy 
for 6xample, 2 os of a material sasily wrought, ‘or may bs cut 
like precious ptones;<if hard stone, sugceptibls of a good. pok 
ish; Fig. 35, on, Oss The central, though hightly loaded bpant ae 
ashlar meant: hays low diamond panela, and the larger square 
bond-stones could be finished with hemispherical bogs8s, 48} See be 
treated like precious stenes with erystalline. recessed angles, — 
as in Fig. 2b. SER such masonry be constructed without “through | 
stones, though ‘the large square. blocks— appear to be bond- SS tO= 
nés and really hold the masonry ‘together, they ‘should have. pro 
jecting heads . like nails: or rivets, whien may be formed. in ac. 
cordance with the hardness of the stone, Or: the. expedients oo 
possible. Forms of -bond- stones may also pe. improyed in the. ons 
mode employed by Julian San Gallo in. the Gondi- Palace | at ‘Flor-— 
ence, represented in ‘Fig. 38, Pp, pass " ae BRE tae ‘ 

Cf. ‘the masonry. is to make 4 neble ue. ‘simile dnoresaiae : 
smootaly dressed and polished ashlars of “good material will i 
ways ‘appear best, rane tf. the best mods of construction is. also 
to be adopted, ‘the ashlars: ghould extend through the entire 
thickness of the wall. This kind of masonry was the normal » 
oné in the finer venples fot the Greeks and pes and was 
termed Opus isodomum. . ee 
With the increasing pootha ss 8 of: the ‘ashlaraj: (eegett tha in 
& polished surface, is likewise joined the closest possible | 
fitting together of the bed and end joints, so that these. en- 
tirely disappear if the. ‘blocks are very carefully rubbed on 
éach other. If the material be also peréectly homogeneous, go 
that its color is quite maculae a uniformity of appearanc® is. 
produced, which the 


eh 


. CHAP, se STONE MASONRY.  epuega VR, iN 
produced, which the Greeksddid not try to attain as being. the: 
highest ideal of masonry, or they would not have somtimes gil 
ded the joints er have marked them by narrow strips of bronze, 
which appears: erroneous to archaeologists, who are enthusisat- 
ic lovers of uniformity, | [t should then be stated, that in 
general, ashlar work has entirely renounced the ise of square . 
blocks; secondly, that through-stones in very thick walls 
should have much greater depth than width, so as not to break 
at the middle: @ construction as in Fig. 37 r is admissible 
however, as it. indicates the thickness of the wall by its high 
er bond-stonés. — Very durable stones with good ‘bede, cbetly is: 
stones and. those capable ofa good polish, ‘are well suited for 
tae so-called plate-bond, Wig. 37 s,° 3 peculiar mode of rata 
walls, not unjustifiable in exceptional cases. In veneered © 
masonry backed by brick- work, rubble or concrete, Ls. Ts evi- 
dent that Bee notghrough- stone. are used, the- courses of strebeh 
ers mUSt alternately. ‘extend deeply into. the wall. Pig. 38 Bo es 

If labor igs to be sayed on ashlar mason Py, a bond with few 
bond-stones ig preferable, and the height’ ‘of courses must be oF 
as great ag possible; put if material ig to be economized, as ae 
in countries. furnishing little stone, oné has the choice of 
either alternating courses Of stones and. orick-work, Fig. 38 ue 
ag very common: in. Upper Italy, Belgium and Holland, or of 6m-- 
ploying alternating blocks of ashlar and. brick -work, Fig.:-39. 9.0% 
| This kind of mixed’ masonry ‘is sometimes found in Belgium and 
France, and a similar ‘specimen of ashlar and rubble. masonry 2 
exists | ina buttress” of the Castle of Meissen. Thig mixed mas 
onry may be suitable for brick piers of ‘enurches, in spite of : 
its inferior resistance, and it is accordingly found in the — 
churches of Holland and ‘S. Bavaria. ‘Veneering walls with e16- 
ments of. different” forms — is to be considered fanciful, and may 
be seen in many Renaissance bul Ildings in eentral France, cover 
éd with mosaic work of difierént €olors, To this is allied | 
Italian mediaeval incrustation in marble, which is merely a 
covering, and it was a merit of. the Renaissance oie um devel- 
opéd this: into a structural principle. Bs Shs 
' a Fastening and Clamping Ashlane ‘together. Pega. 

Somes: are. fastened together by means of mortar, as well as 
by projections of the blocks, three specimens of tnese being 
- giren tn Pig. 0A0.: shown in plan; or by dowelis cf stone or mé6t 

al; by indenting the. bleeks” ‘dnto each other, Fig wa finally 
by cramps. These fastenings are generally concéa @d within 
the joints between the stones; if cramps appear on the exter- , 
nal surface, they are either treated as inderted anchors and _ 
set in lead, as in Fig. 42 a, or like Fig. 42 b, from the Nolan ; 
stair balustrade of the Bishop's Palace at Lucca, Pe 


- CHAP. 1... STONE MASONRY. evel A at 
pa Ashlar Masonry in General. Bs ! 
ee Aube Renaissance clearly ‘perceived stat things shad have. 
since been neglected. Bed and end joints play different parte \ 
bed joints being subject to crushing, while end joints are Rose 
undér any strain; it follows that bed joints should be made 
prominent, but not. end - joints, producing a two-fold conflict; | 
etre Tey. all architectural styles must be thrown aside, that 
: have. accent ed ‘both kinds of joints, as in the best Renaissance’ 
2, the bed joints must be made most prominent and end gotake 
subordinated; it would then be inconsistent to leave both 
jotats unaccented, as both anckent and mediaeval architecture 
would then be regected. If bed joints only are accented, the- 
masonry produces the effect of being composed of continuous | thd 
layéfe Of stone; Which is not at all. the’ case. °°. | wm 
TP the. masonry be ¢onsidéred as a ‘construction, with a right 
to appear as such, Ee: would be proper to’ allow it to. ‘appear as 
a structure composed. of parts, in which the end joints would ~ 
play their part as wel) as the bed | joints; this structure may | 
characterized in the simplest way by the natural mortar joi: 
and does not need to appear as a monolith, in order Wo prod 
the effect of unity or as a whole, but the swayoof unity ove 
diver sity must be evident. ‘in. the structure itself. ‘For the 
game reason, the joints: should be accented by. the expedient : 
already described, and if end and bed joints are to be disti 
guished, which is only proper when 1%. is. desirable to make a. 
the fine constructive points ‘apparent. throughout the ¢ ae 
building with most extreme consistency, end. Uheae nay bé 
rower. and treated otherwise pers bed Lente WY Sere 


tic. er teck ‘of masonry, our. he dag are. tied, 
-alesance buildings are get aside, -gince a. ipoed: eee of py 
characteristic beauty is. due to irregularity in forn and 
ment. The same is true ot Semper! s: requirement that. only 
' substructure, as belonging to the éarth- DaBe, ghould. show 
mode of gtone- -cutting and the arrangement of. the: joints, wh 
the eonstruction of the supergtructure need not. be apparent. 
We merely have the choice of either setting aside the Pitti, 
Strozzi and Rucéllai Palaces as errorg, or of establishing. 
theory of Art -in accordance ha which these. Oa es Fees may 
considered justi siableé. = a oe. Saget Ses ost 

By means of the various modes oi eutitng already descoinee 
forms Of ashlars and kinds of bonds, numerous became are. 
available for giving the masonry a varied Character. From th 
massive strength of the fortress and the rudeness of the ru 
ic building to the eae gtaceminess and princely spelndor 


the palace 


ae 
gS we te 


CHAP, 1. (STONE MASONRY. eat ae RA 18. ; 
the palace, the most gariea effects are possible ae the appear 
ance Of ashlar masonry. The actual dimensions of the blocks 
and their proportions add their own efiect to the general one 
of the masonry. Square-faced ashlars appear polder than oblo- 
ong ones, and gmall stonés are also bolder. Ley. approximating 
the square form, but. large stones, whén oblong. Increased — 
richness in the external appearance of ashlar “masongy. may ue. | 
produced by the mode ‘of cutting, by varying the bond, by Rete, 
ining the bosses with mouldings, rubbing and polishing, ‘by the 
use Or better materials, by inlays of finer and more valuable — 
stones and metals, by decoration of the joints, BLO Ge On ary 

As for the mode of cutting, all affectéd and formal tPéat=- 
ment of the ashlars, as if the stones. were gtuffed cushions, a 
like that originated in the Barocco, es: decidedly objectiona- 

ble. No attempt should be made to enrich tae architecture by — 
incrsasing the labor. in any way, and. ifo e does not wish? toc. 
economize work but to lavish toot: Ad pr ferable | 40: oo ee 
ashlars a form of ldeedngt ton thel or GGbelorure. 2 eo 

To accentuate the bond leads. to moaaic work dna Gisauteee 
the structural character @ $5 ee , if carried too far, sae 

On the contrary, if it be desired stain. a rich structu- 
Tal bond, like Fig. 36 oO, and to Dee its decoration £0. LO. 
highest point, as” in an altar-chapel er consecrated shrine, a 
is. permissible. to usé a more refined treatment of the bosses 
by moulding, rubbing and polishing, nobler materials, inlays - ' 
of semi-precious or ree Lous stones, noble beds! mae stone Antar 


or mosaics. A monument or a public fouea dal ‘would: justify. the’ 
use of this kind of decoration. — The corresponding sculptured 
decorations and figure-reliefs would. require a" rich mods Ory 
treatment. It not being possible to surpass this ‘richness. ia 
decoration, we must then, which is permissible tn® purely. aeeen 
rative works, abandon construction and. either merely think Shioe 
a covering composed of sculptured marble, ‘like. the. facade of th 
the Certosa at Pavaa, or incrust the surfaces. with polished. | 
precious stones, whose joints are gilded and deoorated by stam* 
‘ped patterns, as in théochapel of Castile Carigtein near Prague 
or lastly, cover the masonry with decorated “plates of bronze 
or ofanobler metals, as done in Greece in ancient stmos 
A peculiar construction of stone walls may be mentioned herp — 
entirely correct in principle and admitting of a great. variety 
of forms, an example of which may be found in the Romnesque > 
church of St. James at Regensburg, Fig. Age the wall is compo. © 
sed of stonés not extending through its entire thickness, but a 
sO arranged that partpproject on the front and part on the 
rear sides. The Peete are eneleesd: Dye an, arehitraye of eaUEs 


ot) 


7 


CHAP. 1. STONE MASONRY. See ae A Fo 
able. profile, and the convex portions of one aide become con = 
cave on theoother. This structural motive may be treated in 
variouseways, according to the bond selected, and. thinner. and 
more decorative enclosing walls may employed in this manner. 

As opposed t0 aghlar masonry, whose nature ig entirely strue 
tural, bonds imitating ashlar work in constructions Of. wood, 
Dutch stove tiles, wainscoatings, metal work, etc., are to be 
sO ‘Region if possibile, taat they may not suggest actual ash= 
lars. Sunken panels, sometimes appropriate for gtones under: 
pressure, more richly profiled enclosing mouldings, ete, are. 
not only. permissibles for structures: of materials other than — 
stoné, but are even to be preferred. Divisions ‘into ashlars,. 
painted onpplastered Walls, must be treated in a mannerppurely 
decorative, gO as tO ‘appear like tapestries gewed together. Bi a 
Zach division should be enclosed within a ‘decorative border, 
its centre cage accented te flowers, rosettes: and other o ona: 
ments. : ee cram eas ba 


 Chepyen: 2. Brick Wackay. BS | : a 

Brick walls” are found in the earliest period among the. Based 
rians and: ‘Chaldeans, ho employed unburnt bricks, generally ©. 
Taid with asphalt. Yet the ‘Romans first developed brick mason 
ry: with” “excellent elay and superior mortar and cement, sneye 
quickly constructed all kinds of mixed masonry of concrete, | 
and of rubble, where. Drick W238 chiefly employed as a. facing 
for the: Wall; for. this. purpose, taney used partly Ve lane 
partly prismoidal tiles, generally employing oblong tiles for — 
through courses of headers, and triangular ones for the Soot 
stretchers, béhind which the wall was a mass of concretsé, com 
posed of fragmpnta of tiles” and cement. Phey preferre ed. the ‘ 
Opus spicatum, — as well ag a kind of magonry, - in which: pa 
ef all kinds were produced. by horizontal eiripes ae 
by colored stones. oe var 
' During the Middle Ages, brick equatnuction’ Was developed in 
aifférent ways in various parts of. ‘Europe, especially in. Taly 
S. France, Bavaria, the low plains fad ‘N. Germany ‘and in Holland. 
Only N. [taly and N,. Germany have ereated oa true construction in. 
brick, “other ‘eountries having almost exclusively employed Beis 
mixture of cut stone and brick-work. A bond was used in Hols, 
land during the entire Middle Ages, composed of. alternating © 
courses of stretchers and headerg, though the lengths of the- 
bricks did not correspond to their widths, so that regular — 
breaking jointa in each second course Was not peseitlenc ie. 

The middle portion of the wall is usually composed of EDD TF i 
backing. The natural mode of. treatment is to lay alternate — 
courses of pec eee and if- two ot jolnee fall Sorel. a 


me 
¥ finsiaag te 
yeh 
ae 


Pe ts. ' rR LPs “esa ; : Sa re A” pit PE 
yet? > pa Ws 7 ‘ : y ‘ » ; ba Ps . Br Mg ey 
4 oS z < > Saat Lae. ee eh a . ‘ thine. “ Yo) Ae Ar +, a 


. CHAP. 2. BRICK MASONRY. | ae 20. 
longer or shorter brick is selected, or is Sut rapiy: cub. phie® 
‘Kind of masonry has the decided advantage of cheapness, over 
all regular bonds, and is therefore to be recommended for ord- | 
inary purposes. It appears picturesque and léss peskentions » 
than regularly bonded masonry. (Most American stone-faced — 
walls aré wholly backed with common bpick ark, rarely fubole. 

jaw l. The Structural Bonds. re : = 
“Modern bonds are ‘either those used during the Middle Agen 
as Gothic or Polish and Dutch or Flemish bonds, or those. intro 
ducéd with the Renaissance, as the Cross and. Block bonds. ae, 
Ordinary modern brick masonry As. composed of bricks of unif- 
orm dimeng tone; hose, height, breadth and length have the. pro-- 
portions 1: S: 4, ‘ineluding mortar joints, so that 4 thie 
nesses and . joints equal “the. length (except in the US.). 
Bats are sometimes us 6d with whole ‘bricks, as in Fig. 44; — 
pricks H, two making up the length L, quarters ’ 1 Eby | 
er bats D, and also split bricks K, “two. maicinge -Herwtasel of a. 
brick. “Mache bond is go arranged © ‘that the bricks forming the 
external. surface of the wall,:are stretchers » or headers as 
they always coyer the joints in the course next below them = = 
The thickness of brick wa} le is’ always a multiple of the — 
width of a brick, no others being in use. The end joints of 
the wall surface commonly extend through > the wall. (except eB ee 
the U.S.), Fig. 45 a. The interior of the wal). is entirely 
composed of headers, stretcherg being only used on its exter 
nal ‘surface. (Reverse is true- in U. fo ee Ef. the. ‘thickness of Se 
the wall equals an eyen number of half. bricks, ‘the. SoURB Se: are 
always similar on both faces,. Fig. 45 by but. ay uneven,’ ane 
courses alternate on the faces, a course of headers on | 
pee pone te to one of gtretchers. on the Dane oy 8 


ek ge masonry, 
hickness of a brickt with ha” mortar joint). 


and headers. 
ors, Fig. 47, the bond ponte. “connee ted ‘vertical ines 
2, between which oe a are left, 
bricks-ot two colors 


~~ 


al 
oe ad 


ses of stretchers). 


CHAP, ME, BRICK. MASONRY. Bs | fie BES 
¢alled English: bond in the U.s., bur rarely used preaee for or 
namental ‘work in two or more Lalita oc ) ie es 

bi: Creda MONEE ce | 4 
Like Block bond, Cross: pond. consists of alternate courses ae 
headers and. gtretchers, ‘but: end. joints of stgetchers only fa : 
in the same vertical in. each. fourth course, and those of head 
ers in each second course, Fig. 49, The entire bond may be. 
considered ag a diagonal net-system, with filled cross «shape 
interpsaces. In vertical, horizontal or oe ear ce 
this bond hi peki Var Hap of abutting eoursss. I 


oe 


1 tn (Also. called ng lish pond rie au 


he 


In 2 veretaay airoced eb bond wae ite. Giviaed: Tate « eae 
ed elements, which - fit pogether without. any interspaces; in. ers 
horizontal er, vertical pe te into Sengente courses OF: 
diagonally into”a net-sys: . ‘@ produ 

by separate headers, as in Figs. 6 
in the U.S. and sometimes uged in. OS puuiehrat ae Pk 
Begides Cotnic. bond, a variety of it ts pote ok 
brick oO eae nate Abpea sores tte ad We: 


red ee ( > Baar 
ob 


terng are ecu ree ogres one. ‘et: then 
qd. Flemish Bond. a , 
“fhe Flemish bond, Fig. | Wacorseeniy Ferana teh wees 
in common use in Bel ium Sade rare in Holland, ¢ | fa 
ermating courses OR: headers and of, ‘courses. in Ge ; BC 
The end joints of. each second. course of svretonare and © 
second course of headers lie above @ach. other. Ina ve 
co this Boe eonstats of “gonnested: eee 


acagadcll) inte decorative avterna, | th one most 
commonly and generally employed in masonry. elie, ‘American 
bond consists:of a: course of headers. ieee i Le 


Cross bond ig stronger than. Block ‘bond, on Hecount OF OR | 
more perfect alternation of the joints. . Gothie bond is chief- 
ly used for facings of rubble Walls, has less” gtrength ‘than 
Cross bend, and is not so. good for¢facing rubble masonry: as a. 
bond ‘composed of stretchers and headers alternating in pairs,: 
Big. 654, so that two courses’ eSmaye ‘bond: ‘vogetner with she 


Pay ey F sate 


king of thel mami 2 TENE ee Te 


ba 


ead 
; ae “Piickthg Of vhe. wall. 
| malts one brick: thtek, 


Ways correspond ing _ to. those 
“to a teeny ahha method , 


&. ay or. ie oat ere 
bags te ure or es ea 


arranged, 
at. the a 


t 


ne 


paedi of gees 4 
obeskiletr diss mee stritil 


CHAPTii2.-» BRICK MASONRY. EB. Aa 24, 
a8 Well as of deep reddish-brown. bricks, but the joints were 
always I@ft white, and the Wood-work of the windows was also 
white of néarly so, [tis undeniable that the appearance of. 
such gloomy houses igs made ag pleasing bythe joints as may % 
possible: ea ae | | ate in 

~The imitation of ashlar masonry in brick-work, as excéption 
ally doné in the Italian Renaissance, is nonsensical. (Mert 
Joints are frequently colored in the U.Siy black, brown or re 
ary or paste colors being mixed wih the mortar, which produ- 
c68,a more pleasing ahd bess crude eiitect than the use of 
White mortar. Inferior brick walls are also stained and tuck 
pointed in white, which is one of’ the worgt of shams, and is. 
never durable). boa oh | 
ee Chapter 3, External Plastering of Walls. (Stucco) 
Since external plastering is a protecting covering for ordi 
nary rubble cr brick masonry, it is to te treated merely as a 
covsring, and its range of form is to bé sought entirely inde 
pendent of masonry. All imitations of ashlar and brick mason- 
ry, painted or in relief, are decidedly Objectionable for this 
réag-Oon.-. The expedients, that may. be employed for decoration 
Of external plastering, are those of Sculpture and Painting, 
the stuce® being a soft and plastic mass, when appli ed.: ate 
Stucco-work is then the proper means of aecorating external 
plastering, a division into panels, the enclosure of panels by 
mouldings, insértéd ornaments in cement or plaster, etc., are. 
permissible, but only under the cOndition that the series of 
forms hay imitate neifher those of stone nor wood,: .Aldegtamp- 
ing ef incising. in the soft mase is well sulted to the nature 
of the material; the inscription or impression of ornaments, a 
rude treatment of the surface by hatching or poughening, by 
seraffito, or by true painting, gold grounds and gilding of 
the various parts; all are suited to the plaster surface. A 
painted and. symbolical architecture ig preferable ,» Which is 
nO imitation, but @ free play of form, can not be: excluded 
from the domain of plaster decoration. Paiastering subservées 
no monumental purpose in general, and therefore affords free. 
Scope for the taste of the périod or the individual, or the. 
tréatment due te the subject, and for this reason, itmust be 
excluded from monumental structures as far as possible. Ere 
One of the many barbarisms of the "Periwig-and-Pigtail* PSI 
»riod, which we adopted, and has not, yet disappéared, ts the ©.» 
painting of cut stone and brick-work in ei] colors. [tis one. 
of phe faults in taste of the last century, to begopposed bY.» 
any means, though one should not forget that the Esthetic... ~ 
sens¢ in its lowest stage of development, as in case of tae 


genera 


TA We kes itt ae Seah Beak RY ese Mk worn At eRaertlas im 


both joints and.surfaces of timbers; algo in carving the pF 
ee eh ahs, es es ae eid bia ab SERRE ese, yee -caek nie 


Om 8 ee Re ee TF SPOTS: F< ee i os TR. xy 


Pe ee 8, ewe eee oe, eee OE ial i il al 


. : CHAP.’ 3. BXTERNAL PLASTERINES Bm. Ay 26. , 
general publit, sees moré art in cleanness Of appearance And 4x 
regular, symmetrical arrangement, than in the’ pictures que; ali 
the modern péasant is better pleased by a regular avenue of 


. poplars, than by the finest forest; art commencing for him, as 


for mankind in general, with order and neatness. [t’is: to be. 
lamented that he remaing at. this beginning point,-and that tne: 
great public of cities and entire nations, like ths Hol landerg 
can never. pass beyond this, though we must consider this love 
of ordér and neatness in nations as really estgatic, without ,— 
which an exaltation to Art is generally impogsidle. : in 
din many citiés, where! available materials are not: homogenous: 
it is often scarcely possivle to econvinese even educated pere- 
ons, that the natural color of the material, in spite of ita 
irregular.and possibly gloomy color, is preferable to a unif- 
orm coat of of] color. . The reason is that order and néatness — 
is recognized as a canon of beauty by theseppersons. Re ciatie 
As being not unimportant and entirely useful decorations of. | 
masonry, we have. finally to mention wall-anchors, as well aa 
holders for banners, Janterns, ete, the former being found on | 
almost all old housés ih liolland, the latter, on the palaces — 
of Florence and Sienna,. The Dutch and Tuscan smiths emulated — 
each other’ in the designing of tasteful works of this’ kind,* — 
which are to be accepted as true models of a refined treatment 
of metal: as Vee ee 
(Stucco plastering is rarely sed in the U.S. because plain ° 
stone iacings. afte no more eieraixs, look better, ahd are prob 
ably more durable. Whény used, imitations of the Orders shou: 
should be avoided, though almost invariably employed in Europe 
for this purpose. Tae Renaissance stylegis best for the case) 
‘Chapter 4. Wooden Walls. ray Be es ; 
_ According to the construction, wooden walls may b© support. 
ing walls, like those built of horizontal or vertical timbera | 
or of planks, oP they may be merely division walls, such a8... 
partition or board Walls, paling or picket walls, panéllings - 
or lattice-work. | AS are 
| | 1. Walls composed of Horizontal Timbers. = 4 
These are built of round or rectangular timbers, laideto <4 
erosa each other at the angles, either leaving crevices bet= 4 
ween them, as ih Alpine stables and hay sheds, or to form =o. 
walis that aré wind and weather proof., Tne ends of the timbq= 
erg project beyond the surfaces of the walle at their inters:~ 
ections, or are cut off flush, making the bond vietble at angl 
Decorative expedieits for esthetic treatment of these log- — 
walls only consist in carvdng -eitner jointe or surfaces, OP 5. 


we Fa 
: . & , ; 
7) tte tube: PRT. > eee at 
afi Soa Sth: ee 
oe aa iia 
ae sottae 
= : ; 5 aii 


Pe ig 


Picts a gy areas et Senne ty tha 
sre Stas & 
eae 


; CHAP. A “WOODEN WALLS. Sec en aga A 28. ; 
3 jecting’ ‘ends Of timbers, their. pottoms or gides, their angles, 
von, Sdges or ends; finally, when the ends do not project, the. ‘n= | 
gle bond ts itself decorated. Even if a richer: treatment Ohne 
‘these walls is found-in éxcepttonal cases, these decorative. ~ 
expedisnts are always worthy of mention. The true Swiss Ob) - 
tage, Norwegian and Russian churches, as well as. peasants’ ‘how 
668, constructed of horizontal. timbers, andalso mediaeval COR 
ae structions of similar kinds, all. employ the most varied forms 
of wood-carving. The carving of the edges of. the timbers may 
‘be done in various Ways, either by mouldings, Fig. 6b a, + 
notches” ofall forms, whose repetition produces pa rns 
“ numerots. cinds, - ‘Fig. . 65. ore ‘The: carving of. ‘the st 
ees borings and: ‘ineistons of all kinds, dentils, 
chess-board. ‘and. Zigzag patterna ae ‘and’ the’ ‘innutierabl KI 
ornaments for enriching surfaces and’ edges of- timbers. | 
One Of the best means Of decorating surfaces of timber 
incised bid let Tee tf an “Pet e 
‘sunken pelea: 


ae 


“g9 profiled as. tea 
Romeegion ane ce ie 


form of the ped: join’ " 


«diverse ways by cary. ing their 
eee Riciihtiaa *nem ee poses Ee p 


oe anata: let bea 
“fore somiiret te Beate 
7 les 2.288 


—* 


“An some oe keaw ss Teepeelal ay” th Toca ee 
ia Drege «Web leo compos ed. of Vertical. minhere 
ee  Tiese are almost whelly employed on: bui dings 
i epee: seldom for those of any importan : 
Ae a ‘pea of timbers set. vertically and closely .j: 
(ts ‘tengues: and. grooves, . Big... 69, -usually- for preve 
cee Of Water. The timbers are driven into. the ground, - 
end Yate tehoned into'a sill and a plate. roe idea ae 


“OP 


y 


i ar 
it 3 


ae CHAP. AG cone WaLLS.. 


Ta oy lg oe ee separat : 
; “arranged in a y oth 


Co er 
he 
a 
f 
ends z 
% 


Baty 


ri 


ANS 
, 


nie. os “WOODEN: WALLS. Bee: cay A 
nother rail or held together. by a ate of cseetbe, He 
\ that the. ‘boards may be. ‘cut. into frés-énding forms, 7 

: “widening th are rig. 7, 
TS 


ine ‘forme, Tue tacos and: wok su eutd ty he uaa area 
ryed cuts-as. ro merely indicate: Sate Bisy ol line, 
erminate. for oa ‘An tae sae anit get 


the Pag 
sired to saw. see n 


ro ie faeh reacits praner 0: 

f ; + oa nh ae pestaienie. to sof, “form hem that. the rem 
ing wood may take proper forms. Exactly the opposite o 
“tg” hére said is true of carvings. in board ) not eut eléar 
through, one then haying perfect liberty to do as he wishes. 
Ef, perforated boards are nailed on other boards, forming a 

kind. of decoration in relief, ‘the board forming a net-systen, 

the same freedom is ‘possivle as in case of imperforate cary “ 
ings, as the more fragile pkrta are firmly nailed. — The finest z 

Swiss houses and those in the? “Pyrol and Upper Bavaria ‘hay a 

hered to: secre ‘primary law with, erga tuaiat perforatio 


ioe 


due. to the color of the bark and of the wood of the 


Pic gt CHAP. 4. WOODEN WALLS. BE. A. 28 

are almost entirely openings of pleasing form and arrangemen 
the free ornament being used on firiezes, panels and simi: 
eeenen bat parts a3 a board nailed on. Either the porte 


effect, or it may be decorated by painting. But ‘one ios 
of the. poverty of modern thought is to be rigidly excluded, 
though in spite of ugliness it always passes for a mode o 
créasing the beauty, the chamfering of angles and the out 
ing of forms by @ colored line. It is singular that. Pm 
ror in taste does not disappear, but our schools. atillpp 
it a8 a specimen Of refined tagte. “fhe most pleasing. fol 
thus weakened and ruined at an increased cost, and to mak 
especially beautiful, @ bold red band is then drawn para 
to the ugly edge, 60 that the form retains still ‘lesecha 
#4. Paling Enclogures, ee 
Paging enclosure dnaclude simple park fonces © ‘eonsisting 
verticala placed eloge together and supported by horizont 1 
timbers, and present. different modes of treatment. The a 
means of producing the most diverge forms by the caret 
tion of. ‘timbers. of equal or alternately equal diameter 
the substitution of pleasingly interwogen willow twigs 
hori@ontal timbers, bytthe simple carving of the upper ends 
the verticals, and ‘bY partial removal of their bark. For 
enelogures, poultry yards, enclosures in zoological + 
etc, this simple motive admite of ‘pleasing variatio 
Ways, and if the wood-work, . whose principal. ‘ecolor-é: 


placeg, be heightened by. in terwoy en brightiy color 
dian. red bethg used on parts of the pieces, and the « 
between the verticals be filled by fine lattice work, 
uired, these simple elementary ideas may beeen ete 
inexhaustible wealth of form treatment, <~ 

A peculiar use of paling-work is found in Upper us 
Steiermark in hay sheds’ and similar buildings; the: 
rramés of the sheds are filled-ih with thin fir pole 
tne sapees between the frame appear. striped, Fig. 77; 
etvripes may be varied in many ways. This kind of wall | 
cently been employed for rustic buildings, zoological g 
eta.) inary lattice partitions, used in all kinds ‘of. 
‘hary, bul ildings, are variously treated by notching the ed 
the strips. An inexhaustible number of motives may be 
ed, goyerned by the principles given for ornamental cute: 
of beards. Fig. 78.: The strips may also employ all expéed - 
ients Of carving, thereby being changed into works of low re- 
lief in-wood-carv ing ‘proper; round pieces, obtained aPC 
ral trunks; may also be transformed by carving into ‘trues 


tures 


aa 2, hae) 
Hey Ses ae ‘3 aN im Sa chess 


se “CHAP, ie WOODEN: WALLS. GS 2) ESE Me egmeng ey Se 30, 
tures. in Wood. © (Picket fences. belong: yee ‘this. oie: abe. of i 
méroug. forms, and” are very commonly’ employed in the U, S.- ‘fOr. 
enclosures of oe in elties and ALE ages. los trequently. 


Sea 


‘Tight and delicate effect. A recent ‘type wobas bkdbew. wires. 
for horizontal wooden rat: Tey the verticals being thterworen:. 
between shay and. might ‘be made quite. poet cael oadeh boas 

aoe Panel -work and Lattice-work. - Paty aes 


a) 
ee! 
eS 
Bie 
oz 
a 


oh always comp : 
tiineh vaaater “the. ‘framing. ‘forme. a "Kind: | . ake 
paptis bicwes® ee oe ae hg Na as a lin Jast 


re Tae tice ns ate 


camer mon la € aia ONG. 
and la tice-w rk 


“Teatly,: the “purposes: ya te. Be 


x into many 2 cane ian av : 
with narrow panels, soli + . 


| gued -and «grooy 6 
: be ingerted” ration of 4 the frane eee els 
| nO ta rane work mat 


peo Ey ek of ‘the Upieees or oe rial ST ataatroa ae cet 
panél-work.igs found in the joiners’ work and cabinet work 
| the Arabs. (Méhammedans ) , ahd @@ the Renaissance, * | © 
. Tf the panels are. eachcomposed | of several parts,- they. may 
be combined | ‘in accordance y with any. suitable “mosaic. system, Fig . 
2g then usual dy Pequiring strengthening: by a sécond” thickness 
of boards at right angles to the panel. The panel may ‘be com- 
bei Of two thicknesses, ‘teh. covering the joints: of th oth | 
r, Fig. 62, acfayorite motive in. mediaeval work, — Finally, — Bits: 
aE may be. partially or wholly replaced by. mould ings” grrov- 
oe st or belay aed and aes ta may be ines re Sa ube eoolaat 


pote is a 


: ils 
% 
ia 
‘ “ { 
wy 
j ’ 
* 
‘ 
oe 
Fa | 


ia! f 
y's 


4 


CHAP. 4. . WOODEN WALLS, De aes 

, od-in motidings being broken around between them, Fig. 83, 
Italian Renaissance wooden doors and esilings used these mot- 
' ives in various ways; the usé of groovéd-in mouldings and spéte 
‘ial tails and punting affords this advantage, that finer kinds 
of. wood can be used, when not of large dimensions, and that «— 
the panel-work appears both rich and strong, but both labor 
and cost are increased... ‘ * 

Joiner’ s work now employs other materials than wooed less fre 
quently than it might for panels of panelling. Wood is always 
necessarily ugéd for panels subject to direct strain ag in a 
doors, wainscoatings and similar work, where they may be brok= 
én orypresséd in. TO increase its ‘direct etréngth, its middle 
portion sheuld be: strengthened, either by hetiaeral Beeler 
moulded -raised panels, stopped at their lower and: upper ends’ 
by, carvings iy many forms, or by Renaissance diamond panels, 
like those ugéd for diamond -~panel led- astlars,« thobgh one: must 
be as careful. as possible to keep their forms as distinnt. as 
possible fromthose Siployed in stone eonagruction.. 

To this use of ordinary woods for panels, may be added that 
of costly woods, of intarsias, and all kinds of inlaid work. 
One of the test materials for panels not exposed to injury is) 
smooth gtone Of fine color and polish, easily obthined in many 
localities. Not only different harbles, but varioug kindse of 
quartz, serpentine, lapis) laguli, as well as fluor spar, ¢erys- 
tals of glass and stained glass, can be uged ag panels,» with | 
thin slabs of engraved slate, etched lithographi¢ stones, and 
any other suitabie natarad or artificial minerals, true sculp-. 
tures, reliefs, ete. —( Stained glass is now mich used for pax’ 
Gis tm the VU. S,). we may also use plates in relief of cast, ~*~ 
‘hammered ‘or eiectro-déposited metal, enamelled plaqués, ete. , 
' the products of métal work and art industry, faience and maj ok 
ica, porcelain and glass,: the latter transparent and with eng-- 
raved op etched decorations, stained, gilded, or opaque glasé,. 
in form cf mirrors; also parchment, stamped leather, silk, vel 
yet, eloth,, lace,-gold brocade, embroidery and. toher textile — 
niterials, ‘lastly,’ paintings on canvas or other materials. => 
(Most of these would only be suited for furniture or interiors 

The pieces. of the frame are connected by jointa at right, a-- 
cute or obtuse angles, and are sidé,| cross or intereaecting, pie 
ces; it Was a’ mediaeval rube to decorate insets and tenon’ 
iothee in some way, Fig. 85... This ts especially true’ of com- ° 
mon Wooden doors, that were decorated in the simplést Way; 
these decorated joints, such, as aré found in mediaeval and | 
Swiss houges, are worthy of use at the present time, FMS cat 2 

The treatment of the joints. between the panels ‘and the fram 
ework is based on’ the Feauty enieg } that aes panel shall nok, ghee. 


re YS _ ive 
a Peed x 4 a . 


s 


CHAP. 4. °° WOODEN WALLS. B.A, 32, 
tightly inaerved in the. framework, but gO as to freely expand: 
and contract without danger of)cracking and warping; tf panets 
aré made of ordinary wood, as usually tne case, and which 
_ shrinks readily, the wood «work must not be painted, since a = 
line of a different color would become visible by shriniage of 
the panél, and the joint must be covered, that the expansion - 
and contraction of the panel may not be visible. This may be 
done by moulding thé edge. of the frame-work; placing a round — 
next the panel, or by fastening a round or moul@ing of wood be 
metal to the edge of the framing, Fig. 86. . if the wood be — ; 
merely left in its natural color, oiled or geated with transpa 
rent. varnish, the joints will not bs visible, and the rounds’ ~ 
and mouldings are unnecessary. °- If it be deatved to paint ate 
part of the #ood-work, only the ffame-work and panels are pain 
ted, leaving tne moutdtnge in the natural color of ..the wood. 

The mouldings eas we dodges eRe ss and. panels aré arranged Inv 
accerdance with following edneidéretions: they are struck. 


witha plane in ay EPeat variety of forms; if the panel ling (be 
in the interior ofa building and’ ts then chiefly lighted by 
diffused) light, strongly. curved profiles are required, while 
- moderate relist is sufifictont- for exteriors. The darker ‘the :- 
wood-work and the more distant it is .from the eye, the aoe ae 


must be. the relief off the profiles; polished woods, shining _ 


paint, varnish and» gilding aré gu ited: to the lowest relief. ~ 

The ffame-work is $o be s0 afranged, that the material may” 
appéar more prominent around the margin of the surface, or as 
if receding from:a centre, whichis: left lése prominent, and 
this determines the profiles. Of the pieces. froming( the Trame~ 
work, im connection with principles already stated. : ae 

Without taking any special style or the ancient. Orders as a 
basis, but according to the preceding views, the profiles of © 
‘he f{rame,work and mouldings may be composed of simple: forms. 
of section, that-must’ alwaye be used by man. These simple ~ 
forms of section are:, Fig. 87: 1, e¢hamfered angles;- 2, round- 
ed angles; 3, _ hol lows; 4, combined rounds and hollows; oy COri= 
bined. hollows and rounds: 8, rounds; 7, gree se; &, combined’ 
rounds and coves. : 

Variations of these) ground forms. may occur in three waves: 
ahs: bY a curvatuge of profile more or less strong; b); in cass 
_Of ‘combined fo ; one, or néither of the two.is most peered wis 
ents. ¢), ‘when the form ig not only treatéd as a connected. , be 
bur also.ags a transitional form, as in case of a. curvature yeq- 
vying from that ‘of a circle. Fillets, grooves, and small hol- 


.'Pows, serve to separate differént members, at the same time” 


peing bands to connéct them the plain flat surfaces adjacent | 
bo pee: members Berve 28.2 eit dled to the ag etn tan 


Peet ae ante) : zy “7 
J = Ace = ¥a' at es . Smee sa.” ian! oe te 
ed POS R ai aes fy" 


os 
ag a rt sM 2 7 ~ 
; ihe Sian nts EE cpr MAT aS ee 4 ohn Ue cae Ty 


We 


| CHAP. ss “WOODEN WALLS, | B.A, 33," 

One of the most decisive reasons existing now, » cok ebi nee us 
to do one thing and to avoid another, is the guéstion of cast.. 
We are always Yestrained in the treatment by a thought of its 
cost, and seek to obtain the greatest effect by the simplest — 
néene. The Renaissance most fully developed panel-work, and 4% 
we shall learn most from it fer thé treatment of our. own. ; 

Foft effect of contrast, forms of projiles must alternates» | 
where altéraation is not “found, overloading is produced, which 
commences with duplication, and produces the efiect ‘of monoto-. 
ny and poverty of thought, ingtead of richness (except in reed, 
ings or flutings). > Such dupli¢ations should be considered ony | 
only when desirable in exeeptional cases for sake of economy. 
In case of wooden mouldings, this reason of sconomy entirely \ 
disappears, their cogt being approximately equal for working. | 
Rounds. and deeply undercut. forms require more ‘labor and are,  * 
then to be aycided of Limited to exceptional cases. The Goth=. 
ic employed hollows “and rounds more than any obher style, but. 
made very marked differences in the radii‘ and sections of thes, 
curved forms to cCotain effective contrasts. The requirements: 
of contrast and variety are Satisfied. if a concave follows «a 
convex moulding, or @he reverse. Hence, in concevo-convsx, 
forms of section, a quartér-round or round may follow a SOV ey a 
but not another cove, ny. 

We must further consider which profile foie Buell predominant’ 
whether concave or eonvex. - Concave forms not only convey: the” 
impression of attraction, butialeo that of change, being trans | 
itional forns:. but conyex ‘forms express’ energetic Fepulsicn. 
Gon cav O- -conv ex, like ‘the ogee, are intermediate between ‘he 
two, the sharp contrast of convexity being softened. =~ 

_ The finest frome-works of the’ Italian Renaissance enelose | ‘ 
‘the entire work by a border motlding, which.takes a form. accor! 
ding to circumstances; the pieces composing the frame -work: red) 
main figt, of forma sunken ground, Fig. 88, or @re decorated » 
by intars tas, culptured ornaments or band - like designs. ‘The’ | 
_Piek@st ornamentation is concentrated, on the space between the 
border and the panel; this member not seldom consists Of pies. 
ces bo@dered on both sides by mowidings and finished as dlam-~ 
ond panels, Fig. 89, or are decerated by band-like ornaments. 
The panels are either left plain, or are finished with: raised . 
diamond panels, or finally, are decorated by beautiful eeulp- . 
‘tured rosettes. The later Renaissance sometimes surrounded 
the panels with very strongly projecting. forms of mouldings, 
causing an appearance, as if the material very. ‘foreioly. ital 
itself away from the panel. ~ 1 
-. Tn the richer forms of .jotnery, the cornics was decorated by 
a corona with carvéd leaves, after: the antique, the actregal » oe 


! 
} . 
7 i oa) 
i Vv = oeep 
ey A eae 
’ = eel 
' 
@, 
B 
+. i 
re : 
re 
‘, 
{ 
ry 


> 


x & 


was beadéd, “and thé cayetto was ornamented by incisions. ‘There | 
is’ no reason for omitting ‘theses antique lé¢af-mouldings and’ <- 
beaded astragals from our work, 

Panel work is preferably employed for doors,- windows, shut<) 
ters, wainscoting, furniture, wooden ceilings andppartitions.. . 

6. lattice-work, 

Panel -work becomes lattice-work If the panels are omit ted. 
Ordinary. jattice- work is either constructed by placing strips J 
across each other, of halving them togetaer; or if the strips — 
are very thin and flexible,. they are interwoven, Fig. 903. «i> 
the first two cases; the intersections. of the strips are fast« 
ened by nails, but.a fastening ig unnecessary in the last’ case 
The dattice-work may be completely enclosed by a: frame, oF. bs. 
suspendéd go as to bé free: the strips may be horfzontal and 
vertical, Pig. Sl, or nel ined: lattices constructed of strips 
crossing, each other or halved together take manygforms, if the 
separate strips have their edges cut out in. accordance with 
any linear ornament, Fig. . 82 a. Moorish and early Italian ar= 
chitects havé shown an @special preference for: thégse lathices.” 

A geecond mode of decorating lattice-work ig mediaeval and — 
consists in cutting the edges of the strips at the openings 
only. Thése cuts may formscomplete perforations, Fig.-95,.or { 
they maybe only carved, the Openings retaintng their square 
form, Fig. 96» thig motive Was much uged duping the entire Mid | 
dls Ages for doors, in which the interspacés were closed by a- 
thickness or lining of boards; and even for panel-wonkg with a3 
panels Of majoltiea: plaques: and tiles, and also fer walls of. 
gabled houses, ag at Beauvaia.. The Renaissance retained the .’ 
game motive for the Construction. of Mcors, as in a church. door 
in Deventer. ° 1: is evident that. the: strips end free if not | 
enclosed by a frame, and the nails at. the intersections may ae 
transformed into. knobs. ‘and rosettes of inetal. “Rules. alpeady — 


A peculiar. form of lattied work wag invented by oneentatiaes 
tions, firgt used by:.the Chinese, : employing bamboo stemsy: thes 
lattices consist Of separate round members, tenoned: together, ; 
Figs. 97, 88, and ‘form-knotty swellings at, their jointse,: that | 
aid the artistic: éfifect. A transformation of: this to a lattic! 
composed of flat strips, also a favorite with Orientals,: gives’ 
rise to: the most varied forms, aceroding to the mode of inter) 
section of the strips, Fig. 89, and to the way tn whieh the | 
Knots of the bamboo, are replaced by ¢arvings ad ald Ovni 8S 3 
An Arabian and Barly Italian lattice-work, st 

‘A further development of latticé-work was made by the Arave | 
bh using turned or carved: pieces of wood instead of bamboo ae 
tems. or wood en’ Strips, and. which were conilected oy holes ae 


; o 
ce ry 
reivia 


: heey ee 
: Bhs Ma 
hy) A tae 


a og ae a La 
CHAP. 4, WOODEN WALLS. 9 J Suey 8) BA SB. 
téenona, Fig.:,100. (Specimens: of these very graceful iattices 
may be found in Ever’ s Egypt. Often now termed epind le-work may 
‘and considerably. used in best interior finish of most expéensiV® ; 
houses in) the U.S, séreens, etc. ,» though; quite expsneiv ey, ee 
Web, embroidery and masaic systems maybe used.as bases for 
lattices of this kind, which may also be produced from WIT OS eo: 
g3uze with interwoven turned forms, A great many Araolan Tat-*., 
tices are baséd On @ combination of chain. with lattice and oth 
er Bystemg; it is impossible to. exhaust this. mode of construc-. 
ting latticée-work, with its endless possibilities, ut the 
forms: may alb-be referred. to a Tew eaimple ‘principles. — . 

New combinations of lattice-work can fe made by making tts 
principal lines a net-work of wood-work, the interppaces then 
being reduced in size by ornaments of wire, wrought ifon, OF. . 
décorations in cast metal. ee as pe . te 

The uses of lattice-work are particularly for light enclo-~) 
gures, partitions, or to sery6 as. supports, like lattice giro = 
ders; it is also excellent for graden payilions and enclosures: : 
poultry yards, ahd similar purposes. |. | 7 sepsis 


* 


Chapter 6. (Half-Timbered work.” ohn Og 


7 
> 


This is a@amode of constructing walle,. whose form would clade 


it with panel -work, yet from its natune,: Lt pelonge to wood: ae’ 


“eonstruction pweper, sinte its different elements play an 2 Vente 
birely different part in construction. Thes® elements are aa 
follows, Figs, 101, 102; on a gil a as a .base are set posts ¢ 4 
connected by a plate b. This’ frame-work would not be of gtab- 
le form unless the timbers a and b are stiffened by struts or | 
braces d:| thé girts-¢ stiffen this bracing and divide the nals” 
timbered work into smaller panele. It is now customary to | 
make this work as regular in formas possible, ueing only... 
‘straight timbers, thereby sacrificing the advantage of variety 
in effect, and obtaining scaPoely any improvement by more péer-— 
fect and stronger construction, which remaing ‘nearly equal to. 
timber+work regularly arranged as in Pig. 101, or irregularly’ = 
as in Fig. . 1028. yc ve: ee La 

The. motives-“for’ the esthetic treatment of hal f-timbered work 
are derived from the form and arrangement of the timbers; fPco | 
the modé of their tnatersectton, and from the mods¢. of tilting ie 
‘nS interapaces. The timbers may. be arranged. in various Ways; ~ 
and a difference should be made by using regular or irregular 
panels, braces and girts, according to whetuer the purpose be ~ 
more etructural or decorative. ®ugin gives Fig. 103 as found’ oy 
in Houses at Boulougne. «An/alternation of fferent arrange-" 
ments of paneld will a@lways have a more pls iy appearance, 
than-if all aré treated in exactly the smas Way the mst < 2 


pals 


eee os ee 


x ‘ 


| GHAP, 5. HALT IMBERED ‘WORK. ol ets “36. ene 
pleasing half-wimbered houses exist in peasant vidlages;and ./» 
small citiés in those countries; where wood construction dae eo 
preferred, frequently showing very, instructive détails, : and 
eis evidences of a true art feeling in tneir builders... 7 x 
The use of naturally or artificially curved timbers in wood os 
cofigtruction, of those eut. into curved forms, may be very an-- a 
eients they nave wrongly been discarded in our era. | The shiek a 
en aPchitecture of the Tyrol, Upper Bavaria and Switzerland 
favored this means of Obtaining pleasing forms” in: wood -work. BAC ER 
A Tew examp 16s are here added from houses of Hess ian Peasants, : 
Fig. 104) oles 
if faces of the. ‘Vimbers are bo: Be. dauorated. as gtruts ate 
subject tO compression, they are to be ornamented: by «incised - 
or painted longitudinal stripes, Tike eolunns, ‘and: thet? ornae 
ments may end in volutes; but ties,are in tension - and are to, © 
be characterized by band-like patberns. - The interséctions OF 
timbérs ean be decorated as described’ ‘for ‘panel-work, -as ae usual 
in mediaeval.and Swigs wooden architecture, Fig. 104, right. es 
The intérspaces. of. half-timbered work are eitner filled with <— 
covering of boards, which is most pleasing if placed on ‘the. eer 


ingide of thé wall, or by unplastored brick-work, ‘f6r-whie 
purely decorative bond {is especially. appropriate, or last 
with plastered masonry( or plaste%ed on lathing in modern wor 
This plastering may ‘then pe décorated in any of the’ ways: ment- 
toned in the enapter. on’ Plastering, such as. dy: incised sketch- 
“es, egraffito, ornaments in relief or paintings Work 
¢ial elegance has interspaces filled with tiles or - 

In addition to a consideration of the construction of wal 
we: hats 3eY 10 ae m ion: covering the walls with ‘glates, ‘shing 
‘ngdes: pf. opeseiny wells: and various: me ene es be derived — a 
ft ae. bahia diviston ‘of surfaces tnto De ilar elemen: 


* ‘Chapter: he : ‘Nod Maulied: Stone. ‘detach ae et Ss 
we ‘Waeal of ancisnt mrchitecture wae the construction or ae 
. ceilings with beams and slaba of stoné, and this: has. log t. near - 

ly all practical value for: our time,: though Petatning a ‘symbol * 
ical one. “From a standpoint purely material, recognizing only’ 
what stbserves>a material purpose and stripping otf every. his- 
‘torical reminiscence, we should then throw the gtone-beam | cell 
Jing aside, since we can attain the @esires end better and mo. 
‘cheaply by vaults on iron construction. . But froma general — 
point of view, where we must correctly distinguish between —: %) 
he has only @ temporary historical value: and what has’ & per. 
manént one for all time, we shall find that, in spite of rp otep 
erences of racé and language, Soules is not saat a Bolt. in. 
its mode of thought - : | ete one aio Seal 


2 oh 


fae 


lite Pyne far. hentne us, epee he 
as Boe osetia JPSERDORT SS or. ohanens. 


ship ueea’ as. ee tekia Sehawene! evel aera 
come symbolical, dice srodaas 1 hy espe 
: ee 4 inc thes 


pieces of hard an 


eal purposes, 
ined. by Onno 


<o reg ioe AB’ IMehoay 
“loyed by a people 


mye uk: the, is the of a dow dome. shone ae. rae 
ae: tbe. ledacic is too digit #9. ae ee 


ee CHAP. 8. - NON autre STONE CEILINGS. 


er. ‘the san eo ees are ‘stable. or. ‘Kote ee they. ane, opie Nertbas 
mode would” “be to ‘palee- two” stones against Bach : other, or to. 
of ‘arrange these stones in arched form, Fig. 108, With th 

© tton. that the’ ‘stones. shad. not. slip on the abutment, 


he a 


end: tr bee Pog feapt coed ceilings, employed by & 


“used. in sorutites thee ote t 
"Beans Ot haley © ar ‘T i ° 


wider te 
srevnertnoary 


a ‘Or ale: 
- ; aient p> blem, 


ally acceptable, and Fes 
ly belonging to any speci 
them merely because “ahd particupa 
oan Pog or ease Meads Baie 


Pe toe “arehitecture, on dn thé Midale A: 
aaa Rye evig Sat omic paw aaars it the, 
anct Sik pee te nei: lop ae 


condi stise! ‘of two: aaah beane: ails and 3 ere! ee nny Seog | ie 
deans abutting against each other. ab the Saleey walle te ee 
her beams are mitred poubenars Faget. The's sn beams: Lied 


a 2re 


et 


’ 

y's 

_ » 

\ 
; 
ee 
i 
4 


- extent. P 
olan cs 


f Pi 
H 
wa 


aE 


mits sto 


ad retain. th 
Biome. 


an r genser etopas: are " panels and “neither 

| sagivteas ton for Pcs eae supports. | 
ine on yrire ! fie 
ORG: de¢isee ‘ o¢ ae 
‘fntervals: Weineed: Solus or. nv reee put. “heata ‘on ‘cont inten, | 
- Walle, like most) Cothicists and. Rigorists for: falge- esthetic 
views, is’ ‘no 1léss a mistake and. could only result. {Pom the. « 
BON GO He Beenie me ‘the walk. ig merely vo: ‘be considered iB 
oging Member, and Bot 1 a seek tibons.§lid 


CHAP, 6. NON-VAULTED STONE CEILINGS. BR. Ay 40. 

when the wall acts as & support, it must be regarded as 3 and 

of gontinuous pillar. The masonry, even when most perfect, ®@1 
ways requires 4 levelling ecourss to support those parts above 

it, and the architrave is justly regaraes ag such a levelling 
course, When {t does not span openings. This should more prop 
erly have triglyphs than the free-spanning architrave, Whose 
nentre should be ac Ifghtly loaded as poselote, and the latter lam 
showld be go constructed as to lessen the weight, as in Fig. 

119, .from Temple of Jupitor Stator at Rome. That classic sty 

18g employed the principle of corbelling in constructing the 
richer forms of ‘ceilings is proved by the peautiful Tomb Re 
Mylagsa. The motive of this ceiling, Figs. 120, 141, exhivits. 
a rich alternation of different orms of stone beams and cofrs — 

If we now consider the esthetic treatment of all thes® con- © 

structions, we shall seareély attain any resuit other than the — 
classic, gecépted by the Henaissancs; beams are always bearers | 
and eonnect supports with each other and the wall. To increas — 
their reststance to transyerss® strain, their depth should ex- : 
eeed their widtna. Their lower surfaces gre appropriately dece on 
rated by band-like patterns and imitations of twisted ropes, ; 
expressing connection; supporting moulded members are proper 

_for théir upper edges, which in the classic method are decora- — 
ted by leaf-mouldings and beaded astragals. “Their mouldings — 
will have various profiles, according to the materfals and tne” 
‘mode of lighting, the Lignt almogt. wholly coming from below in © 
cage of ceilings, through windows and ag refeections from the 
floor, when the coffers are Lovet glass. Se ee 

The following distinctions in regard to the forms.of ceiling — 

are to be considered. If the moulding ang the beam are a sin~ — 
ale piece, much material must be out from the rough block. In 
constructing ceilings on a large scalé, it is then preferable © 
to ingert the mouldings. in the beams as. separate pisces as.ab 
a, Fig. 122." Tf the principle of corbelling is to peuutilized — 
ag mucn as possible, we should>let the mouldings predominate 
as at b, Fig. 128, subordinating the vertical surface; accord=” 
ing to the proposed end, the profile will pe varied, either 4a 
taking the energetic convex or the softer transition concavs 
form in lighter constructions. Lr ene stone beams are all 
properly. anchored together, or their ends are built {nto aoaae™ 
ed masonry, wnen the architrave should not be tco heavily load 
ed, and when the span 1s smalt and deep architraves of ston® 
are not used, a strong projection of the corbelling ts penis.” 
gible; it ts then best to mould. the entire surface of the Cor | 
belled-out beams, sing? their ecéntres, of gravity are then Bebr 
further back feom the yY facés, a8 gh: a. Tis. L234, while with — é 


2 
" i 3 


nanging portion 


the arrangement .b, the projection of the over 
of the beam, | ‘ ye eae 


me 


TP 


~ CHAP, i, | -NON-VAULTED ‘STONE. CEILINGS, are ee 

ofetne beam makes. it possible for it to tip over. If the oe 

&@, Pig.124, gs so long as to. have a firm support at each end, o 

it may be corbel led out considerably; but the. intermediate St 

“beams b, that. complete the frame-work,. must) then eitner be aon 

belled out ‘but little by- the ends of the beams aa by. inclined | 

joints. The horizontal lower surfaces - of these beams: -— Aah 

wise be ornamented by hand-like patterns. = = “ 

In. medtaeval. gtone-deam esilings, the angles: of yh: Deame 

; are generally moulded by coves and. rounds, Fig. 128; scarcely 

any objection can be made to this, yet all ‘aproximations tow | 

ard méediaéval forms. ‘ghould be avoided, the more. the. work is_ Be 
removed. from construction of. churches, theses forms | ‘becoming 

permissible. in the degree the work ‘approaches that. purpose. "A. 

Renaisgancs that will satiaty all modern requirements, may ve-- 

: ry properly approximate more or less clogely to any gtyle-tne- 
Be dency, according to its. neéds, without losing ita. internal mn 

ity so long as it adheres to a pringtple generally applicable, 


% 

ee 

; 5 ; 
ee ue 


tne form- treatment being developed from the. problem itself, 
with which. is always eonnectéd. thep purpose and the material, 
the construction, ‘the external requirenenta: of lif ‘ 
lecal. conditions. he : eis ue 
fhe vertical aide surfaces ° 
ly decorated, yet they might b 
 ¢fan ba und -ornament, oF by a ban 
The cone. _ themselves. were. 


AB a. later. ohtn “hese Blere. were. seheasat ‘into. wean 8 es 
These decorative eas for. Wrens tng: stone pellet 


tio. as well, as. venerable. opted: of form, — ‘consecrate 3 
Veattton. (Ls: it be desired to. elose the. interspaces” ay seceiat 
slabs joined togetner, rahter. than by coffers, ‘Fig. 28. 
should be made lighter by peing hollowed-out, the joints being © 
eoncealed by rounds er beaded astragals, and the whole being 
finished by a decorated keystone. The coffer might also be 
wrought from a thick block instead ofa thin plate, hol Lowed - 
eut and the surplus gtone on its exterior BPing | Bae tikce <e8) 
ws akaseeanhir by a ‘suspended Bibione Fig. 1eT. 3 } uae 
BPE Chapter 7. * Wood en-Beam. onl Pee is - 
“These. are either. ‘simple wooden ceilings, inaivatee oui tinen! 

De. of boards, or they are panelled ceilings. In both cases, the 
ee ceiling may bé horizontal, or composed of norizental ast aS 


clined planes’ 


“Ti. wrw 


=i 
” 
a 
fi a 
* an x 
J \ 
iy e's i : 
, J 
‘ 
: i 
~*~ 
5 
; 
' 
- 
A 
‘ 
{ 
: 
e a 
é iT) 
¥ 
‘+ 
i 
t 
. 


CHAP. 7. WOODEN-BEAM CEILINGS. BE. A, 4c. 4 
clined planes, or it may be curved. , 
1. The Simple Wooden-Beam Ceiling. ay 
The simplest form of this is that composed of a series ofy 
beams upon which is nailed a flooring of boards, Fig. 126: 
if the floor be used or loaded, the be&ms must be sufficient 
strong and close to support the lead. If the span be too g 
fopubeams to dcthig without bending, they are supported by'g 
ders at their centres, or by several at suitable ditances, F 
i2g.. These girders may in turn be @upporéed by trussed beay 
and vertical posts, Fig. 130 showing several forms of trussé 
Deams, used in mediaeval ceilings in Tubingen and vicinity. :! 
Figs. 131,132 and 133: are other examples of similar modés of 
supporting beams by cap pieces, from Town Halls of Freiberg ,' 
Meissen, and the Germanic Mugeum,anat Nuremberg. These cet! 
ings may be constructed. with intermediate beams, Fig. 134, . 
the main beams may be doubled or trebled, instead of béing s 
ported by girders to support the load, and to prevent the | 
board floors from being visible beneath, the interspaces may 
be filléd with separate panels of boards. 
[t is now easy to deduce from the construction the motive; . ay 
that supplies the decoPation. First consider the beam / tno mee 
supports, lower and side surfaces, tnen their connection Wit Gee 
girders, cap-pisces, trussed beams, the intermediate beams (2968) 
doubled and trebled beams, also the board pansis, their jolts tam 
and enclosing mouldings, and grooved-in panels. ‘a 
[f the cétiings are not supported but are suspended from tie 
roof construction, the guspéension members and Pods, the trug mg 
sing of the beams with fron work are all to bé mentioned. ‘ia 
From the motive of the suspended eeiiling may be derived pecu 
ar forms, like those that were favorites during the Middle; 
ges, taking the form of vaults though built of woed. in all’ 
weeden construction, the supports of ends of beams are very} 
important, for if the ends of the beams decay, the esilg fal 
These end supports vary according to the purposé of the wok 
and its arrangement; either the ends form corbellings in woo! 
and half-wimbered walls that support the upper storiés, Fig.- 
135 a, their ends are flush with the externa} surface, Fig. 
135 b, they rest on the wall plate like beams of a wooden ro 
Fig. 135 ¢, their ends are built into the Wall, Fig. 136 d, 
tenoneéd into a wall beam according to a French method, Fig. 
6; laid on a brick corbelled cornice, Fig. 138 f:; a Wall 
piaté ig inserted between the beams and the eornicse, Fig., t¢ 
8; corbels are used instead of a cornice, Fig. 136 h, with 
p0Osts placed between the corbels and wall platée,. with or wits 
out brackets, or finally, the wall plate rests on a project tif 
When the end- port of the beams forms an offséet, go tha 


CHAP. 7. WOODEN - BEAM CEILINGS, | me AL 4a 
me intérspace exists between thessupport and tne boards wre 
this ars be filled by a vertical board or one inclined forwaad 
Fig. 138 i; this board may be decorated by perforations and the 
joints Between it and the board floor concealed by mouldings. — 
The wall plates may be moulded, decorates oy longitudinal stri 
pes or jeft smooth. 

The most pleasing forms of énd-supports are derived from the 
motives £, g and h, when the cornices of stone or brick are of 
rich forms, or by developing the corbels. Very rich modes_ of - 
constructing these supports were deyisei in the Middls Agés i 
and Renaissance in numerous massive wooden eeilings oF» Dutch ee 
churches, Town and Castle Halls, ete.; the principle is to jes 
sen the spans of the beams by cap-pieces. A corbel a supports — 
& strut b, on which rest two cap-piscés ¢ and d, that: support 
the beam e. The cap ec is supported by a brace t, @ Wall beam 
by braces h h, and serves to receive the board floor laid on 
the beams. The eorbels are formed like classic consoles, or 
decorated by shields, . heads, or figure sculptures; the cap- tee 
cés may be characterized in very varied ways, being both tree... 
ending and supporting members, for. which the volute curys. ader- | 
ived from the [onic capital supplies. acpuitable motive; struts — 
are generally cut. fron. crooked timbers and are quryed in. vari- — 
ous ways; finally, the struts and beams are moulded or other- | 
wig@ decorated; massive wooden pins with carved ends, tn prop- © 
er places, increase. the pleasing appearance of such ceilings. — 

An example of a beautifully. carved cap- piece is. given ER ‘Fig. 
. 137, from Burghausen. The interspaces between beams © and ses 
may be filled with perforated, carved or gmooth | Board se ee 

The lower surfaces of the beams: are appropriately decorated 
by bandylike patterns. of carving or painting and the ‘gides” By | 
frets, bands of palm ornaments, ete. , ‘borrowed - from. stone ‘beam — 
ceilings. But the most suitable method is to “mould the angles 
and surfaces of the ‘beams; as these mouldings are produced by — 
planes, they either extend the’ entire length or etop against — 
special carved ornaments at the centre and. ends. A fine exam- — 
ple of low rise, from Zurich» is shown in Pig. 138. Girders. 
aré to be thea tad: like beame. For: ‘trussed beams, “four exam- . 
ples of which aré given from Tubingen, | the form. of. an elastic a 
spring may usually be recommended, as seen in the bow, and in — 
the allied form cf the Ionic capital, because its nature and 
function fully corresponds» to that ‘of the. trussed gird: ee ae 

For intermediate beams, these being. less. heavi ¥. oaded then 
main beams, they should @xpress_ the character of this oye 
Whether main nie bm poke ate. the chief idea. of ii aerate. | 


Henly resisting ong bending, of the beam; 
lets — 


‘the nut and Hettas 


| CHAP. 7. WOODEN -BEAM CEE NGS, ae re ee ee , 
lets and grooves, as well as chan i alternate with each out 
er in rich. variety. in thts way are produced the mouldings ar, 
dcuble or treble beams by comb ini ne the half sections of the a 
separate beams of the different layers. Figs. 139 ‘and 140 are. 
examples for ceilings and beam sections from Castle Chillon; - 
Figs. 14] and 142 are from the Castie of Méissen;, Fig. 143 is 
from Castle Schaefenburg near Dresden; Fig. AA: from Nicolai 
Chapel near Dresden, the two last being in Renaissance style, 
The rules already given apply to board panels; joints. may be 
torgued and grooved, or rabated and beaded, sO that no crack ue 
appears aiter shrinkage of the boards. ‘The joints may also be. | 
covered by strips fastened by one sees only, jehar ns. adjacent 
board may freely expand and contract. eae aa eee 2 tee 
Inserted panels should be enclosed by mouldings | eae may pee 
left plain, carved or perforated. . THe esthetic. effect of such 
ceilings may be materially het ghtened: by artial painting and, 
gilding, and if necessary, a pleasing q: ct ca be had by us, 
ing white, black, yellow ochre and Indian x But in ceili 
ings with ‘moulded. beams, similar member 
eahor, gold. should only be used for fin 
ergs should be sharply separated by narr 
etc., that the colors may be used on 2 
The further the eae i. a | 


“Different ateate forms: recall “ret %y 


at 
ba 


This. waahet eee be 
on ornament, it may be replaced by sev yi irc 
on each other, or by suspended chandelier ik 

last. are Renee tal appropriate with suspe 


nioree to oieine tie ceiling vs vault-lik 701 
ion rods then end in drops or ieee toms 
ma y be composed Of: groined vaults ; 
which ae poner re of boards | ig. Placed, ete 


Po WOODEN. BRAM CEILINGS. RR ae mn Ade AL ge © 
vaulted. WEE seact ions ‘being imitated, “though treated dis a pee 
ner perfectly adapted to wood | construction. 

Transferring this structural principle. to. ueciaeeeal yoof ik 
trusses leads to tunnel yaulted ceilings, Pig. 148, yory tre 
quent ly used © in Dutch buildings, | ‘and either coveréd with ee 
Or, as ‘natural to a peaople engaged ane ‘shipbui Iding, treated. : 
like ship~framed. esilings in form of groined vaults; 6 ‘eit 
timbers are suitably moulded, and: gett. struct and the freo- 
énding posts are properly carved, 
ae 


tiles, cp laeee! of raboes “cement, ate, 
Reed, vaccording t 0: ab apery bs s 


ig etneas with. ion eee Sotto 
els, each panel being enclosed 
partly. carved, as ina sesso Oh 

Ue eee “Panel led Ceilings 
eg of the: wooden -beam oe: 


secting tana Sur aaa or ite er 
ieee ES: at the. ep cetaaie gd 


gr gat Shae Nm fe erate 
basis for cofiered ceilings. 
80 beak ts. sobegad i bin: 960: 


AS ea" 


ce ‘ ‘ 
ett 
AT 
4 
so 

- 

- 
‘ 

malt 


~N 
: CHAP. 7. WOODEN-BEAM CEILINGS. ick = B.A 48. 
small beams placed at right angles; lastly, by producing sends 
of smaller beams beyond intersections WAG larger on e,! Pome: 
are the motives Sepresented in ete. 147. 
A further impr ovement in this. mode of constructing ceilings 
can bé made by small beams set diagonally, ¥ Fig. 1468, by tenon- 
ing the ends of small beams into the frames of separate panels - 
| b, and by the introduction of circular forms, or thos6 of oth- 
ér curvatures, Pnese, csilings may be further decorated by us- 
ing beams that do not intersect, but are merely tenoneéd togéta 
er, Fig. 149,- With these expedients, we can Obtain an infin- 
ite variety of possible arrangements of ceilings, aha tare ali 
derived from simple coffered ceilings. Ae 

Many of these constYructions are not very strong, and if re q- 
uired-on account of their pleasing appearance, a series of 
beams is laid above the setting, Vo whieh this is fastened by 
bolts. At the points of intersection of the ceiling it is to. 
be bolted to the oeams, the bolts being variously decorated by — 
knobs, rosettes, etc. All divisions of surfaces eompcsed ex- 
eclusively of eurved forms may thus be. employed for panelled = 
ceilings. As in béam céilings, larger and und ete beams pets 
be ugéd in pane] led eée@ilings aia: ae a ae 

‘Motives ‘used in decorating panelled ceilings are assehrial la. 
like those used fn. panel -work, stone and woodén-beam ceilings. — 
‘But it must not be forgotten that these, like all toher forma, | 
ef ceilings, must possess a dishtncative character, correspond-_ 

ing to the material, and that decoration by carving, gilding, 
and colon are especially appropriate, eS, 

Light¢r horizontal lattices may be bolted to. beam- ceilings, _ 
their interspaces filled with boards, producing boarded or bak. 
tened ho Naa 2 cond ous to the Same. sietheees a8 atu co work ys 

Chapter 8, Iron Gelitnes® ee, 
Iron Sell innee: are partly used for safety against ‘tire, part 
ly because that with the aid of this material, the widest roon > 
: may be covered with greatest economy of mterial and cost. 3 
. Besides fron, only stone and brick are used for fireproof ceil 
ings, wood being used for these not fireproof. 

Iron ceilings are usually constructed of fron beams or gird- 
erg, supported by separate trusses for widé spans. Gifders of 
east and wrought iron require simple forms, and lattice ated 
take special forms with the least propriety; | forms of uniform 

strength are approximately uged for iron construction, and oll) 
painting is required to protect the iron from rust, also mater 
tially enhancing the pleasing effect of iron construction. 

Iron ceilings are preferably employed for buildings these 
only for ordinary purposes, betiss i: caetabana of artistic treat 


ment 4 


&] 


CHAP, 8. L20N CEILINGS. me ee . B.A, A7. 
ment usually sufficient if the general arrangement be pleasing 
and the pleasing sffect increases with the simplicity and 
clearnéss of the construction. In iron construction, the vol- 
unés OY Prather the magnitudes seén by the eye are small in pro 
- portion to the wide rooms cov ered: the external appéarance of 
iron construction depends less on the forms of the individual 
estructural -@]éments, than on the modes: of their connection and 
arrangement. In iron ceilings not too far removed from the 
eye, the iron beams should be decorated by elézant mouldings 
or perforated ornaments if of cast iron; but wrought iron gir- 
ees being madé of rolled plates riveted together, can have 

seth Jany form other than that BEC LAE GLY. required! by their 
Re 

i shee interspaces between the beams are vaulted, the game 
rules apply, that. are given in treating of Vaults; if fillea 
with slabs cf stone cr wooden boards, their. panels are to be 
tréated Jike those of stone or wooden cefilings.. If glass bg 
used for thig purpose, it can be decorated by ice SHER T 

ing, or true glass staining may be emp Leyed. , a 


Chapter 9. Visible Truss ed Roots or ‘Tron and Wood. 

These are ceilings supported by a combined and mutually st. 
strained system of connected members, which consist of vertic-. — 
a | Se inclined braces and struts, horizontal ties and 
tie-reds, with horizontal tie-beams connecting the two end ae 

joints... or the supporting members are placed above the ceil ae 
ing, this becomes a suspended beam, corfer, or panelled eeil- | 
ing, and principlas given for these ceilings become applicable | 
Tre roof’ covering ot” visible trussed wooden roofs igs not sup- — 
ported by beams, but by rafters, and these may directly gup- — 
port the roof, or. purlines may be interposed between the roof 
and principal. afters; rafters are usually straight, rarely | 
curved “ag. in Baroeco spires. The supporting system of a sér~ — 
iés of Tafters is termed a truss cr reo?-truss. | 

Fed, “Wooden Truss.éd Roofs. 

For covering. these roofs, the motives of form result from 
idéas alreéddy given foo treatment of ceilings. The covering 
matertal, stone, tiles, glass, slates, wood, straw, metal, ete — 
is usually fastened to. a series of strips of wood, that may 
usually be decorated like cther strips or bands, lascontne tO». 
their nature and purpose, if the covering remzing visible, 
like panels in interspaces. The supporting rafters, whether 
straight or curved, from their small resistance to bending, 
shougd have’ greater depth than width like all toher beams, and 
should be treated as beams. If the rafters ae the pe 
vurlines aré compos ed of curved pieces, they ay be decorated 
by carving, according to circumstances 


i se ae 4 


CHAP. §$. VISIBLE TRUSSED ROOFS. B.A. 48, 

-by carving, according to circumstances. We may employ for fie 
ling interspaceg between constructive members, perforated or oe 
solid panels of all kinds, also using carving, painting, andi>» . 
gilding, on suitable prominent parts of the pase mevat et 
lic ornaments, etc. — ais 

Simple and clear construction.is always” the most important + 
thing. in all trussed roofs of iron or wood: abrupt transitions 
in the directions of different intersecting structural parts:. = 
may be séftened by transitional curves in rare cases, almost 
entirely limited to massive roof and bridge construction of 
rolled plates; it is necessary to ayoid such interventions, 
opposed to a Pigidleystem of massive construction, when con-_ 

"struction and energy of effect do not require for esthetic Hea 
sons any softéning or weakening. ofOnly in case cf rafters of 
many trusses of wide span, intersecting at oblique anglés, ‘is 
it often proper to tnsert large transitional curves, that lend’ 
a@ bold sweep to such roof constructions; such structures are 
quite justiffable for roofs of railway stations, pare etc. 

2 Iron Trusseéd Roofs. | 

The treatment of iron trussed roofs is. similar. in principle 
to those constructed of wocd, ‘the difference in the two result 
ing. from the essential difference in the two materials, and | 
the technical processés dependent thereon. Economy of ma bors. 
fal and weight with the greater strength of iron mémbérs of 
equa] section, compared with those of any other- material, gty- 
6s to iron construction a lighter character throughcut than | 
that of any other construction. The peculiarities of the mod- 
es of connecting tne different parts, mogtly joined by bolts, 
rivets, scwews, arld wedges, opposes a free moyement in the art 
istic form of iron. trussed roofs, a freer play being almost | 
entirely limited to parta composed of cast iron. But what is 
lost in richness of form by rigidity and thinness of the tron 
construction, as well as by the difficulty of working the mate. 
rial, can bé somewhat compensated by the use of plates of cast 
iron, perforated or decorated in relief, by deccraticns in 
thin metal, by decorative details in wrought” iron, and lastly. 
by ot] painting, necessary as a protcetion ‘against rain, and ; 
by etiding; further, since iron construction is never required : 
to possess the Sredominatine monumén ta} character of stone con 
struction, but always subserves a purposs more or less temporsa 
ry, a moderate usé,of Zine is not excluded, being an RUSE ABSY. 
materta | par excellence of our time, 


CHAP. 10. VAULTS. : | B.A. 49. 
Chaptér<10, | Vaults. : ite 
The vaults preferably ‘Bain voved in architecture may be arran- 
ged in three classes, bri@fly described here; 1, Classic; ¢&, 
Mediaeval; 3, Renaissance vaults,» | : | 
Classical va aults include tunnel vaults, domes, and groinsd 
vaults without ribs producéd by tne intergectfon cof tunnel 
vaults. The name mediaeval is applied to all ribbed vaults . 
derived from classical forms. Renagssance vaults include all 
modern forms existing sineé the beginning of the Renaissance, 
unknown to either the Classic period or Moddle Ages; wélsh- 
zroined vaults, with or witnout intersections by tunnel vaul tg 
conical vaultg of euryed outline, only congtructed with. rivved 
vaults during the middle ages, etc. We shall neitherrtreat 
tne historica] development of the vault, nor dé@seribe all the 
structural peculiarities of vaulted construction, required “in 
2a treatise on mediaeval architecture or building construction, 
bacrefore touching on the historical but sligntly, as nitherty 
and on the structural only as far as may be necessary to déd- . 
uce the décorative tréatment of the vault. ae mee 
1. Classical Yau}ts.. | a s 
‘Roman vaults, ag well Prown, were either built of voussoirs 
or of hollow pots, stuck into éach other, or of separate prin- 
cipal arches connected by intermediate arches, the interspaces — 
oe these two kinds of arcaes being filled with concrete. — 
[n most cases, the surfaces of the vaulta were coated with me 
phvaven since tne excellent bricks and cement mads unplaster-, 
ed stones vaults entirely unhecsasary, or limited them bo the FORE: 
smaller structures. i SReKe aa | . 
) 2 Tunnel Vaults, Se dee ee 2, 
If a series of arches are placed side. by staee the simplest — 
form of the tunnel vault is produced: if the youssoirs Bare vots s 
stone, the motive of hollowing-out their under surfaces result — 
from the requirement that the stones must be as light as pos- 
sidle, to lessen the horizontal thrust of the vault. This hok- 
lowing-out is best fulfilled by the formation of a rosetts, 
Strongly projecting irom the sunken back-ground, thus produc=- 
ing.a coffered ceiling from the vault in the simplest way, and 
quite independently from the horizontal stone céiling. | 
The idéa of the tunnel vault with coffers once accepted, a 
slight consideration leads to furtner progress; the end joints’ 
Of the vaussoirs appear too prominently on the inner gurface 
of the vault: they are concealed by decoration with sunken 
mouldings or beaded astragals. But the vault may be more 
tastefully constructed of supporting arches, éach stable by - 
itself, the arches joined by longitudinal, connections moulded 
like the archés or otnerwise, then filling the IRMer BDAC eB be-. 


tween the two. systems by SepaTahe 


CHAP. 10.“ VADDTS. | g.A, 60 

tween the two systems by s@parate slabs of stone. Coitered 

vaults are thus produced, similar in external appearance and— 

allied in principle to coffered ceilings, since the support ing 
parts form a completé system by themselves, and only thin | 
slabs of stone are.required for filling the interspaces, Per- 
naps. the re beautiful vaults constructed on this plan, thou 
though in a developed form, are those of the sacristy of St. 
Spirito at Florence, and anotaer specimen is given by Viollet.- - 
le-Duc, in which the intersections of the transverse arches ad 
and the longitudinal members are marked by bosses. a 

If the vaoussoirs are small and.of- so¢timaterial, like. bufa, e 
or are artificially made, like bricks, they may be arranged Taig 
web, embroidery or mosaic systems, which has only been excep- 
sana done in decorative work, Strack uséd vaults of this _ 

kind in the graceful yestibules of Bérsig’s Shops at Berlin. - 
The unders sugfaces may bé decorated by pressure in suitable |. 
moulds, or soft ne ae like tufa may have earyad, raised 
or sunken forms. ; a 

Semicircular and Gaieea titine) venlis: when. L- 2 brick. thick. 
are entirely composed of stretchers parallel to their OX) 3 
while Dutch bond is employed fer thicker vaults.. Such vaults | 
remost simply decorated by borders and by. making their upper 
ee 8 prominent by means .of eolored bricks, also by tne use | 
f-decorative bonds, that may always be used in tunnel vaults. 

Smaller tunnel vaults of low Pisé are most tasteful if vault 
ed parallel to their diagenals, as’ Fig. 150, 4 or b. fhe mid-, 
die of the vault is then marked by the intersections of there 
pricks, and to decorate the construction by colored bricks 
appropriate for the middle and edges of the Vaulte Atay 

If long rooms are covered by tunnél vaults these are divid- 
ed into bays by transverse projecting arcnes, partly to break 
tne monotony of the vault and obtain grea ber yartery, Pe 
to make the vault lignrer.. 

A mode of constructing tunnel vaulte by a seriéss of atrong 
brick arches connectsd together by longitudinal arches, the in 
tergspaces being then filled with concrete, again leads to the ~ 
-coffered vault, ig a method’ of conatruct ion frequently emp1loy-. 
ed by the Romans: and is fully ice hag Se by Viollet-Le- DiC 

Z. Roman Groinéd Vaults. | oS 

Croined vaults on the Roman system, produced by the intersec 
tion of two tunnel vaults, the diagonal areiies not pat ea 
beyond their surfaces as groin-ribs, are to be treated like | 
tunnel vaults. In stones vaults, the curves of intersection © 
being elliptical, the individual stones of the diagonal seohee 
take peculiar forms, and each must be worked out separately, 
so that the tunnel vaults may unite in a good bond.. Si che the 
tunnel Bae. Pag ice 


4 Ye eee SA 
Lie irae ’ ey be.’ 
tr a b ee | 7 
e's 4 im’) re ¢ 
7 re 
eve ig i Pal A Po 


eae 


wf) Ue 
er, 4 
i Y 


Dy =e 


CHAP, 10. VAULTS. | Bra 51. 
tunnel vaults rest on these diagonal arches. by means of the in 
dentations of the bond and heavily load them, their depth must 
either be greater than that of the vault, or they must be of a 

stronger material than the vault, so ag not to be crushed un- 
der the load. nig atrengthening of the diagonal arches then 
expresses their greater importanes than the gurfaceés of the 
vaults, either by a material of different color, by a special 
mode of decoration, or by greater prominence of the lines of 
intersection of the vaults in form of ribs wrought on the’ ston 
es Of thé-groin arches to strengthen them The inconvenience 
of determining and working these groin voussoirs with their 
complicated joints, naturally leads to the idea of strengthen- 
ing the groins by eonstruct ing the groin ribs as if. independet.. 


tnen letting the surfaces of the vaults inters6éct above them 


The plan of a Roman tunnel vault with longitudinal and trans 
verseearches, but without special projecting ‘ribs, ‘Wag arrang- 
ed ag in Fig.151, a; that of a vault with groin ribs as. at Fig 
wSeZ b, when care nad been previously taken ‘to provide Sadie nade a 
support for all arches of the vault by arranging supporting 
piers on the plan. But not only the latter was required, but 
the eutting of the springing. joints of the arches was to be 
simplified, and a perfectly free development Of) abbh spearate 


arches of tne wault was to be altained, then the piers. Pig 


liz e required the addition of 4 projecting. diagonal member. 
The ribbed vault wag thug derived form the construction of 
the Roman groined vault in accordance with requirements OP .ekR 
pediency; if -the ribs are to be entirely omitted, and the. eRe ee 
vault ig so well built or tts loading proportionally sO. light, 


that they may be omitted, then Fig. 151 a bemomes the plan for 


the normal arrangement of eroined vaults. The Renaissance hus 

closely followed Roman architecture, and abpolutely preferred 

the groined vault without ribs to the. mediaeval ribbed Vaults. 
ec. Roman Domes. 


The dome igs bounded by spherical aur faces, ae eo eon. | 


taining the vertical axis and vertex being great circles. Pare 
structural and decorative rg@asons, we must distanguish between. 
simple domes or hemispheres, half domes over niches or quarter 
spheres, and pendentiys. Sore constructed on. Pe anen Bie gh ees ie 
or triangular plans. , 
The simplest mode of constructing domes is to compose them. =a 
of horizontal rings of voussoirs, all bed and end joints radia ‘ 
ting from centre of the dome; each voussoir then has two rad- 
ial beds tandyewo ivetticad end- joints. The apex is formed by a < 
conical keystone, its under surface concave and spherical. [fe 
ai a dome be built of cut stone, it can be made a coffer 
me by applying the principles Bethe? found to Beye stone 


CHAP. 10. VAULTS. . B.A, 54. 
tunnel vaultg. If eonstructed of priskg! block | nd heading 
bonds being generally used for structural a _ @Bonomical reas- 
ons, though ornamental bonds are not to be wimded from slanm 
domes, the decorative motives ‘produced by t ae bonds afford 
abundant méana for the decorative treatment of tne surface of 
the dome; the bordering forms at the base of the dome, its a- — 
pex, tne courses in horizontal rings, the vertical and obl £qua. 
directions of the brick bonds, euraten suggestions for the. en- 
tire decoration. 

The dome may also be considered as divided into sections by. < 
meridians, diminishing toward the“wertex, and may be composed | 
of veussoirs having thinned edges toward the apex; this unprac 
tical method of construction should be regarded as fanciful, 
though a great favorite in the late Dutch Renaissanes for nich 
es and small domes. — 

A combination of the two tno of construction is found in 
coffrered domes in Roman and Renaissanc® architecture, carrisd 
out on the largest scale in the Panthson at Rome. A serics of 
vertical arches, dithinishing toward the vertex by offsets, 
form great circles of the dome and are connected togetasr by 
transverse arches, tne interspaces being filled by coffers. 

A refinement was first used in this dome, which had a Nasi oh 
cious effect in later times and led Renaissance masters into. 
error; the side surfaces of the coffers all radiated from a 
centre in the axia of the dome, so that instead of a natural 
perspective fore-shortening of the coffers, a perspective arch 
itecture was introduced, that only appearsd in some degree cor 
rect from the centre in the axis of tne dome, but had a distor 
ted effect from any other point; the side surfaces entirely 
disappeared from view at this centre. For our modern era to 
commend thig theatrical effect as an ingenious idea, as often. 
happens, can scarcely be termed other than an error of judge- 
ment of the esthetic faculty. The lower edges of the coffers 
only should be inclined downward so as to oe entirely visible, 
but not the otaers. 

A peculiar form of domes is obtained by constructing it of 
horizontal rings, also with sections diminishing toward tae 
vertex, if the vault is executed in herring-bone bond, as in 
the dome of Florence Cathedral. This producss a pleasing ar- : 
rangement, which may be decorated in various ways by using cok 
ored stones According to an allied principle, a dome may be 
conceived as being formed of separate spherical triangles or 

rhombuses, their sides partly forming great circles, partly 
spherical spirals on the surface of the dome terminating at 
the apex, a mode of construction néver yet , Sxecuted, though — 
allied to many late Gothie star vaulta. 


CHAP. 10. VAULTS. rm B.A. 63. 

On the palin of any dome may be drawn a regular system of 
straight lines, to be regarded as the horizontal projections 
of a system of circular ares lying on tne surfacs Of the dome. 
Thé compartments of such a dome may be filled with brick mason 
ry régulariy arranged in any fixed dfrection. We find two ve- 
ry atrong domes on the Temple of Jupiter at Spalato and the 
Temple of Minerva Medica at. Rome; the former consists of a 
horizontal] seriss of arches turned above each other, the inter 
spaces being filled with concrete; the other ig composed of 
doubly curved vaults tugned between meridian arches, so that — 
the dome is musk-melon shaped. Strictly speaking, mediaeval 
ribbed vaults of all kinds are merely regular combinations of 
systems of rios, whose interspaces are filled by similar vault 
of double curvature, partly spherical<-ellipsotdal, partiy hora | 
shaped ellipsoidal surfaces, like those of the mélon-vault. — 
Pigs b53. : 

Domes constructed of pots, employed not only by the Romans, - 
but also by many modern architects, for covering wide rooms 
with the least weight, hardly require consideration, as tasy 
2ré almost always coyered with plaster, - If their construction 
.¢ to temain, visible, the bottoms of the pots placed toward ta — 
Ln@ ce tre of the dome, and the xoints be filled withumortar, 
couse! or plaster, which might be painted or gilded, whils the 
bottoms of the pots could have stamped ornaments. — ae 

The nal{-domes of niches are chiefly distinguished from do- 

mes in construction and decorative treatment by tne fact, that 
usua@ily not their vertices but some point on their lowest edge 
furthest from the eye, is to be regardéd as their pols, so 
that the axis of the dome is horizontal. If the half dome is 
to abut agains a whole dome to resist its thrust, as in many — 
buildings on the Greek cross plan, or terminates a tunnel 
vault, it should be constructed.as a half dome with vertical | 
axis, and be decoratively treated accordingly, while domes ov- 
er niches were usually from the earliest times treated in ~ 
shell-like forms, similar to a musels shell, thence termed — 
Concha. The eoncave, attractive and inviting character of the — 
niche, leading the eye to the ,pole of the half dome or shell, 
that point of the construction to which the eye feels restric- 
ted, and from which the energy of the whole seems to radiate. 
Similar ideag led almost all nations to decorate the concha 
with radiating forms, as if pencils of rays tadiated from the 
pobe in all directions, as seen in the sky when the sun sinks 
below the horizon. Hence, in churches, the pele of the nicne 
is usually decorated by a representatinn of tne nead of a Div- 
ine Seing or a symbol representing this. jjoman and Renaissanc | 
architeéets penerally preferred to decorate the eoncha s Of 


~ 


| 


. : ; 


CHAP, 10. VAULTS. | i. A. 84, 
small niches with. ite oe ae ty: thoss of fountains and 
cascades. f 

During the late Renaissance in Holland, it was a fayopbite i- 
déa to construct domes of niches. with. radiating voussoirg dim- 
inishing towards the pole; thig Was carried so far as to cut 
bricks to form the intersectiong at the pole, while the radia- 
ting lines of the brick ah oe were but 1-4 brick apart at tne 
outer edge of the niche. — 

All wholes domes and domes over niches may be termed umbrella 
domes if thelr vertical axes be accented, whether actually dix 
ided in sections by great circles, or meridians: and zones are” 
only indicated, as in church domes sprinkled with stars or dee 
orated by soaring - ang @ks; etc. : 211 those niche domes may be 
termed shell domes, where the pole on lower edge is treated as 

the principal point; to decorate a full dome by accenting any 
axis other than the vertical would be erronéous, and the same 
would be true of a hiche dome, whose top and rear are Soda 
plain, while its sides are made prominent. 7 

Pendentive domes are produced by constructing a polygon of ‘ 
any form, whosé angles lie in gece or @llipse.. This ts — 
usually a regular polygon of 3} 4 4B, 8, 6ta.., gideg. All — 
pendentive domés are partly es supported by the piers a, 
b, Gy ad. bf square, the remainder resting on the arches ac, 
cb, bd, da, erected above the sides of the polygon. — Pae ra- | 
‘dius of the dome equals the radius of the circumscribed circle — 
of the polygon, therefore equalling the Habf diagonal of 4 
regular polygon. If a plane be passed through the vertices of 
the arcnés, which have equal heights in case of regular poly- 
gons, this separates the pendentive dome into an upper calotte — 
and as many péendentives as the polygon has sides. The plan of 
the calotte is identical with the. circle lascribed within the 
polygon. 

The pendentive dome. shouldaalways. be decorated from another 
point of view than the dome; besides its,vertex, it has n low- 
est and n characteristic points, corresponding to the eentres — 
of the arches, which require esthetic prominence; they are u- 
sually constructed by making the coursés horizontal and corb- 
@lling them out diagonally in the pendentives up to the base. | 
of the calotte, which is alone constructed as 2 dome. The dee 
oration then naturally has reference to the characteristic 
points, or if the ecalotte be constructed independently from 
the pendentive, which is perfectly proper when these are built 
in horizontal courses, the chartcteristic points are not made ~ 
prominent on the calotte, or are merely indicated. The bord - 
erg and the accenting of ‘the vertex by a keystone will be de- 
cisive in both cases, and the indtcation of diagonal lines in 


~ 


: CHAP, 10. VAULTS, . . BE. A. 56. 
the first case, and the development of the pendentivés in the 
second, will be equally so. The pendentives gradually inereas 
in width upwards from the piers, and afford opportunity for 
the introduction of polygonal or circular medallions; they may 
be so decorated that the ornament is gradually developed from 
the lowest part of the calotte, The calotte should be separa- 
tea from the pendentives by a border or a cornice. Most domes 
require a keystone to complete the vault. * 

The smaller the rise of a vault, tne less the load that it 
may safely support, by conditions of its stability, and the 
greater its rise, as in case of a pointed arch, an elliptical 
arch with vertical major axis, a parabolic or catenary arch, 
the greater the load that may be placed upon it, and also the 
greater t3 the weight Pequired to be placed on ita apex to in- 
sure its stability. 

Furtoer, the completion of a dome is always technically adif-— 
ficult in vaults of great Span, and an opening ia commonly re- | 
quired at the vertex for the admission of light, or for ‘Ahoist- 
ing building materials, etc. From these points of view, the 
following rules for special cases are dérived; segmental and 
semicircular domes of smal} span are not properly finished . 
wita a keystone, which in very small domes should be go formed 


ag to exert no theied, If tne diameter of the dome exceeds ya 


certain value, instead of a keystone, a complete stone ring is 
preferable, the centre remaining open for admission of light, — 
ete., and can finally be filled with a more or less flat stone 
Stilted or raised domes, whose rise exceeds their radius, ‘i 
must be loaded in a peculiar Way, and therefore require massiv — 
Keystones, that may be bold, suspended rosettes in full domes, — 
or should be a circle of heavy y voussoirs in domes open at the 
top. In very large domes, like that of the Pantneon at Rome, | 
the Cathedral at Florence, tae Church of St. Peter at Rome, the cs 
Churen of St. Genevieve at Paris or of St.Paul in London, ‘the 
upper circle of voussoirsg permits and requires an unugual load 
whieh may take the form of a special lantern placed thereon; | 
in some casés, three domes are placed above each other, the 
lower or ture dome having an opening at its centre, the second - 
being steeper and supporting the lantern, while the third is. 
the external covering dome, whose weight,with that of the gec- 
ond dome, eombines with the hori zontal thrust of the first 
domé as a wuerticalal pressure. The upper Ping of the inner 
dome may then support a gallery, and may be connected by a col 


onnade with the upper closing ring of the second dome that sup 


ports the lantern; but this celonnade should not caus@ too 
great a load on the lower dome, nor should it support the clos 
ing ring of the second dome, since in both Cases, the lower 


CHAP. 10... VAULTS Ya 5 BB 
domé would be in danger of falling, and the second dome would 
be useless. 

The elosing rings and keystones of domés, being their. Aven 
ést and most prominant structural parts, give opportunity for 
particularly rich treatment; in lightly constructed domes of — 
low rise, the requirement that’ the crown of the dome should be 
ag lightly loaded as possible, demands the uge of hcllowed-out 
vaoussoirs in the closing ring, that then more or less closely 
approximates the @orm of the edges of a flat. dish, while strog_ 
domes require loading and need to have their deep crowns load-._ 
ed with as much weight of decorations as possible. ko 

Pendentive domes permit the construction of. ee or 
stilted domes in place of a calotte, above the cornice that . 
terminates the pendentives, a mode of construction especially — 
peculiar to Byzantine architecture, retained in the French Ro- 
manesque stylé, and justifiable in many cases. — | 

Be Med faeval Vaults. € a 

These are ridbed vaults based on tne groined vault, tunnel 
vault, and the dome, but whose eompartments between the ribs 
are constructed as pornions cf domes. Cloister vaults also re — 
quire Vee oe in addition to these. : a | ie aia nna 

a Mediaeval Grotned Vaults. | | 

We have followed out the structuraleprinciple of the Roman 
groined vault so far as developed without becoming untrue to. 
its character, always based on the intersection of two ‘Qunnel 
vaults. The elliptical forms of the groin ribs caused ineon-- 
veniences in stone eutting, varying for each séparate gtone, 
The médiaeval groined vault sought to frees itgelf from all th 
inconveniences cf the Roman groined vault, and made the grotn 
riobs semicircles. Tuis arrangement ig attended by the conss- _ 
quencés more or Jess troublesome; if the side arebes are seni- 
circular, their crowns are lower than those of the groin ribs — 
by the difference of the half diagonal and half side; tae e 
vault must then rise from the side-arches to the crown, unless 
we are willing to raise the crowne of these arches to the same 
height as that of the vault, either by making their abutments 
of two different heights, which produces a very awkward tréat-— 
ment Of the capitals, er by stilting the side arches, which ts 
not very pleasing. Tne inconveniences are incréeased whén rec- 
tangular bays are to be coyered by gr coined vaults, and booth 
side and grotn arches are to be semicircular; we must then 
have different heights of crowns or of PET inet nee or stilt 
both kinds of side arches. | 

The use of the elliptical arch for diagonal ribs may be aici 
ded by substituting for it angoval areh, and if this be struck 
from ag many centres as pos sible, it. Le: hardly inferior: in its 


eifsect 


] ‘ 
% tty 
Da i 

shy 

’ C 4 

' . LAs ‘ 

aeat + i 
, f 
\ y 
gy 
: 
“a 
i 
4 
4 \ 
| 
. 
f 
b 
- ‘ 


\. hs “ahh leh Yh. ON 


ea 


CHAP, 10. VAULTS. | BA. BT. 
effect; if the groin ribs are semicircula the gide arches 
require to be stilted by about 1-8 their pate. as the abacus 
of the impost moulding of the pier would otherwise conceal the. 
lower ends of the arches, which looks worge in arches of itl 
than of wide span, with equal projection of the abacus; but — a 
for the vault to rise from tops of side arches to itsccrown is ~ 
not ugly, but even preferable for esthetic reasons, if the Les 
ser illumination of the crown be neglected. Such vaultg do- 
not convey the idea of pressure, but that of a free sweep, and — 
an incrsase in the height of their crowns corresponds to an in 
erease cf span. In low rooms, retaining the same height of 
crown and side arches, we can usé the expedient of placing tne | 
springings of the groin arches below those of the side pubes 
or the segmental arch may be uged. 

As for the introduction of springings at these: different. 
heights, and correspondingly varied capitals, this arrangement 
is certainly richest and most pleasing of all possible methods 
for its variety, the most consistent structurally, but also 
ark most expensive; to be willing to sacrifice this in monun- 

tal structures hecates the end may be more simply attained, 


a3 unfortunately doné in the more perfect Gothic, is to exch- 


angé one of the finest expedients for poverty of ideas. If th 
the exteeme means allowable in Art are to be employed in excep | 
tional cases, .where everything ‘normal appears trivial, they” 
higher cost should not then be feared. | 
In case of lean construction or mean ‘proportions of the room 
to be vaulted, a moderate stilting of the arches, as well as a 
moderate raising of the crown of the vault, igs best suited to. 
produce the most pleasing effect. In quite oblong groined _ 
vaults, the neights of the crowas of the arches on the longer 
sides and of the groin arches approximate each other somewhat, 
but the other end arches require to be stilted considerably. 
The eariy Gothic employed pointed arches at ths sides, sO as. 
to-obtain control of the heights of their crowns and not be 
compelled to use the gircular arch, which was only used. for 
the groin arches. The choice then. existed of constructing all. 
the side arches with the same radius as that of the groin are 
ches, and which is practically preferable, as all vougsoirs © 
can then be wrought by the same template, special springing 
and keystonés only being required, the crowns of the arches 
not then being at equal heights: or the heights of the arches 
are arranged at pleasure, making the pointed arches dependent 
On thege, which may then be made equilateral pointed arches, 
requiring to be stilted, or sc that the narrower gide arches. 
are lancet arches, all having: a common springing plane. It is 
always mogt judicicus to-.use a Siete radius for all the arch- 


3 GHAP, 10. VAULTS, 2 oc add Apes ike 
és, to allow tne crown to rise gradually, and to stilt tne ar- 
ehes about 1-8 their heizht. To make tne groin archés taemsel 


vés pointed is quite eee if the vault be not very heavily 


loaded. Hee | 
The pointed arch is to be preferred over ‘the cireuls r arch 
for the side arches, because with a moderats difterence from 
tne round arch, it is more piquant, aspiring and dignified. 
If we once become accustomed to not always see the Cotnic 
style when the pointed arch is used, it may be used ina Renais- 
Ssanee as well, whenever appropriate, It was no more rejected 
in’ early Renaissanes than was the circular arch in Gotnic, nei 


tner rejecting anytaing practically usable for blind subject- — 


ion to principle, 


The separate compartments between the iba wer 8 always 50.) 


covered in mediaeval vaults as to make taeir highest line cur. 
ved, therefore becoming portions of domes. Two modes of vault. 


ing were is uss, the vaults citner being constructed after the 
clasgie method of building tunnel vaults, by courses at right 


angles to the axis Of the tunnel vault, or in later times diag 
Onally, so that the half side arch, transferred to the diagon-_ 
al arch, gave the point to be eonnected with the crown of the 
sidé arch. The otner points of the diagonal arch were cOnnec- — 
ted with the corresponding points of tne middle curyed. line OL: 
tnat' compartment of the vault. The separate pertions of the _ 
vault very heavily loaded tne groin arches in the first case; 


but they intersected above the ribs in the second, so that - 


this bonding together was in itself quite strong, the ribs pre. 
per nad but Jittle to support, and as stone wae all eg rather . 


served to relisve the vaulting: 


[f the vault exceeds the normal dvi of emal ler: pays, | yeh bens 
iirst happened in vaults over intersections ben@ath towers of | 
the larger French cathedrals, there were two modes of dividing 


the groined vault into smaller compartments; — either divided - 
on plan into & equal smaller compartments, forming octapartite 
groinsed vaults; the inconveniences of springings of unequal 


height, of unequal heights of crowns, of stilting, or the use 


of different forms of arehes, were increased, for ad and b d, 
Fig. 154, become semicircles and a c¢ and c¢ a ars difierent 
quadrants if pointed arches are not us ed; put with pointed ar- 
ches, the groin ribs a ¢ and bec are quadrants, ed: and ¢ 8 


are half-pointéd archés, while a d and bd are sitner eemicir- 
cular or entire pointea arches; the problem may also be solved 
by using segmental arches, without introducing too many unprae” 


tical results. Or the groined vault may be divided into smal- 
ler compartments by subdividing each of tne frour. Ongine com 


partments in three, producing ths following Pesultg. Fig. cue 


adkt 


hate 
ts 7 


% 


CHAP. 10. . VAULTS. _. : B.A. 59. 

ad plus c dis greater than ac; if the crown of the vault is 
to be highest, which is not absolutely necessary, as thé erom 
cf the side arches may b6 higher than tnat of tne vault, the 
radiug of the longest arch, as ad plus e d,is to be taken as 
the basis of the construction of the vault; this was termed 
the "principal arch" in the later Middle Ages.’ ! ae 

A few considerations, with observations of actual structures 
will place the various difficulties in a true light, that res- — 
ult from construction of groined vaults in aceerdance with me- 
diaeval principles. If sections of all vault ribs and side ar 
ches are similar, or those of sidé arches are eomposed of s8c- 
tions of one rib and two half ribs, it will always be prefera- 
Bboito employ a single radius for all ribs and sid@ archés to 
simplify the construction. One then has a choice of using seg 
méntal or pointed arches in addition to tine semicircular arch . 
of the groin rid. The form of ine segmental arch is. generally - 
Saeoelsted with tne idea of. the Sécular, of tne absolutely es- 
ésntial at the expense of béawty, and of. the Commcen, while to 

the pointed arch is joined the idea of the Ecclesiastical or 
Monkish, not agreeable to all. If the segmental aches are. ‘i. 
neither principal ribs nop side arenes, but merely intermediat ~ 
ribs, tney are pleasing in contrast with eireular or pointed 
tones. as their oblique springing from the Ek gives @ 
piquant eifect to the vault. on 

To adopt the exclusive use of G¢ircular arches would: Or ten 1h 
sult in the greatest amount of labor, with an esthetic effect 
aftording very little pleasure; high stilted arcnes appear ©. 
well only exceptienally, and a strong curvature, that detaches — 
smal] circular arches from their tangents, is very not ee 
gcous. To discover the best relation between the amount of — 
labor and a pléaging result ina special problea frequent ly 
requires many trials before a decision. 

The two examples cf the division of tne groined vault into! 
several compartments include all complex varieties of mul tapar 
tite and ornamental groined vaults. Muitapartite vaults way 
iy constructed on any polygon, heights of side arcnes may be. 

sumed as required, as well as that of the vault, since the 

eis Of the arches may be arranged to bring. the ‘springing 
points high above those of the groin ribs, aa often eer 

in vaults Cf towers, or required for free transmission Cle. 
light, and to avoid transmission of horizontal thrust o7 com- 

partments to side walls, the vault then rising considerably 

from its keystone to crowns of side arches. . : 
b. Mbdiaeval Groined Vaults. Be 

Simple mediaeval domes are constructed. differently Friodk Rok 
an; but the dome was usually not much liked.  Ornamenta! jomi- | 


cal 


CHAP, 10. VAULTS. i EB. A. 80. 
cal vaults cf the late Middle Ages, which we have already con- 
sidered star vaults, are preferably employed for covering poly 
gonal rooms; all intersections of the ribs lie in the suriace 
of a sphere, whose radius is that of the inscribed cirels. ° 
The compartments are covered a8 spherical surfaces of ase 
curvature, | 
Since compartments of both groined and spherical vaults ‘ake. 
stronger, the more they are curved in’ cross. section, tney are 
sometimes curved so much in strong vaults, that their highest | 
point ts considerably above the crown of the vault, Fig. ‘161. 
' Suen *full-breasted* vaults appear more animated than faatter 
ones, because affording a richer contrast of light and shade. 
They are therefore to be preferred if not ne alls ‘but if pain 
ted, the flatter are preferable. " 
c. Mediaeval Tunnel Vaults. | Sede dis 
The simple mediaeval tunnel vault without. rids differs as” 
little from the Roman as the simple dome, “put the ornamental 
tunnel vault differs in very essential points. The ornamental — 
tunnél vault of semicircular section is most simply formed by _ 
making its half span ac, Fig. 162, equal to the height ec c’. Nay 
This construction is suitable for elliptical vaults. Bie noe 
for low rooms. If these are very low, requiring a risé less 
than the half span, we may take a segmental Tudor arch'as a 
principal arch as in the Netherlandish- English system. _ Still, 
the most. hatural mode of constructing the ornamental tunnel | | 
vault will’ be to take the diagonal arch a be b a, Big. 163, 
as the principal aren, making. it a semicirele; all ribs then 
have the same radius, and all intersections lie on tie surface nN 
ofian elliptical yault, whose major axis is yertical. “Fig. (164 — 
In larger rooms, a second system of ribs is inserted between 
tnose of the first system, Fig. 165, and constructed on the. 
same principles. Ribs can alse be. struck. to the side walls as 
sé6égmental arches, whose springing points lie above the general — 
springing lines; the vault may be furtner ornament sd in varios se 
ways. These ornamental vaults of all. kinds are intimately © 3h ase 
lated to Roman coffered vaults, from which they eccenttally e 
difier in having vaulted compartments instead of coffers. ‘The — 
ribs are unnecessary in vaulting at right angles to the a axis 
of the compartments, the brick bond ef the compartment forming 
a species of stiffening rid along the intersecting sheet! that 
does not proj sct below the surface of the vault. © 
Late Gothic sometimes employed ornamental vaults without rib 
ribs, their compartments being formed as sunken pyramids. ihn 
curved surfaces, thus being vaulted as cloister vaults. with 
curved inner’ surfaces, Fig. 166, especially in Saxony. “Such 
vaults, essentially bélonging. Lo brick Cone ee ore deserve 


- CHAP, 10. VAULTS. : AR, ABT. 
imitation in pursly structural buildings, and when it is desi- 
red to produce a rich effect witn small means. . 

d. Decorative Motives of Mediaeval Ribbed Vaults, 

The decorative elements, that decide the external appsarance 
Of the mediaeval vault, are the ribs, their geometrical arrang | 
smeént, proportions, of their dimensions to those of the compart — 
ments, their profiles, keystones, their development above t 
their imposts, and the decoration cf tne compartments. ih ies 

The geometrical arrangement of the ribs has peen guificient a 
ly explained; it merely remains to state that the sids cnenew 
Which, in rooms containing iree supports, connect these togeh- 
er and with the walls, make strong archivolta and smaller ribs — 
necessary and desirable on both structural and esthetic ground 

;if tne side arches support heavy loads, as those of churchés _ 
support the clear-story walls, or those of warehouses, cellars 
6tc. support goods, furniture, implements, men, and other ext-— 

raneous loads, they must be still. stronger. Rooms containing ~ 
several aisles with raised central aisle require very strong | 
longitudinal pier-arehes, with arches of less strength to con- — 
nect the supports and serve as transverse arches, but ribs to 
support the compartments of the vault, pheir. gtrength proport-. 
icnal to the weight of thse vault. ‘For guch vaults to, produce — 
bone impression of great strength, that the entire building may — 
have that of power and reserved foree, archivolts and ribs 
must appear massive in proportion to the compartments of thes. 
vaults; for lighter cometructions to appear light and gracefu] | 
the side arches are quite unnecessary in lightly loaded lho : 
and should be replaced by ribs. Pe ae. Nae eee 

Ribs and side arches act like girders and loaded beams ae 
curved form, Fig.167; their strength increases more rapidly 
witn the depth than the Width, but the fibres most distant. 
from the neutral axis are most: severely strained. From thie: 
results for stYructual reagons the requirement relative to. cet. 
form of section, that its height should exceed its ‘peeadta, 
that it should be strong at top and bottom, while it is allows 
ole to diminish the section between these twollimits. In the — 
Older mede of vaulting, when tne separate courses are perpen-_ 
dicular to the axis of the compartment, the ribs and afchss 
are strengthened at their upper edges, Fig. 167, against which 
tne compartments abut: but this addition is unnecessary in the 
diagonal mode of vaulting: so strong Pids and archés convey an 
impression of strength, and the possibility of reducing the | 
section between intrados and extrados allowa the use of curved 
mouldings, while the intrados fulfils its fuhction as a massiv — 
round. The sections and proportional dimensions of unloaded 
or lightly loaded ribs may be determined indépentently. {ron Se 
the conditions of loading. oe 


ee ee see fe ee eee eee 


+ 


; CHAP, 10. VAULTS, . ae eS ke ee 
tue conditions of loading. The German Renaigsance decorated 
by fillets the ribs of ribbed vaults constructed according to 
Gothic principles, and wnich make the light loading evidént. 
Tnése ribs nave a very pleasing effect.where used; the rows of 
leaves on both sides are decorated bY beaded astragals, cable 
mouldings, etc. The sections of strong bearing ribs, in wnich | 
médiaeval architecture wag very fertile, are yet regtricted 
vitain veny narrow limits; the lower edge alone appears most 
powertul and sold when treated as a round or pointed bowtell, 
which at a distance, has a more enepgetic effect than the Ls 
round, which may also be replaced by a cove or @ sharper edge; 
Ctner forms are inferior to these. Tne Middle Ages created in 
the sections of the ribs not merely members peculiar tO Lts aig 
architectural styles, but corresponding to the developed vault ° 
and of enduring vakue; léeaf-mouldings with beades astragale cr. 
bands, expressing the relations of tne ribs to the vaults as 
supporting members, harmonize well with the sections of the 
ribs. The mediaeval motive of using bands set with precious _ 
stones between rounds and hollows is algo very appropriate for | 
‘ne decoration of the ribs, and is effective, even at a consid — 
erable distance, wheré other forms become indistinct. | eye: 
Only in vaults’close to the eye may individual mouldings be — 
enricned and divided into smaller parts, yet even then a bold 
treatment of the rib will be best. . ee eG. 
The side-arches supporting the walls mus t have breadth as a 
W3ll as strength, in this lying an essential difierence from | 
the smaller rios, their different decorative treatment being 
based on this. The breadth of tne side-arches is determined ~ 
by the thickness of the walls supported, and since the strengh — 
of the arches increases with their rise, the two requirements — 
of breadth and strength will be sufficiently satisfied, thf 5 
they are built of several rings or courses, whose maximumdepk © 


is determined by the depth of the stones as quarried. The 
side arches accordingly consist of two or more rings of a ches 
according to the thickness of the wall and the loading, and ~ 

these may be arranged in half or full steps ag required, so 
that tne side arch produces the impression that the Walls tha- _ 
selves, have laid open their interiors. The simplest and most — 
appropriate mode of profiling tne side aches consists in arran 
ging their sections in steps or ‘orders’, whose alternation of 
light and shade gives the boldest effect; their relation to — 
the loading compartménts is shown by the élastically curved — ‘ 
rows of leaves with some fillets, Fig. 171. If the profile is ~ 


ae 


to have a richer form, the angles may be replaced by ssparate — 


Srgetic force, and if the lower edge of the stepped arch is to © 
be strengthened in relaity ag well as appéaPance, a pointed 5 


CHAP, 10, VAULTS. | . Be bee Bo, 
bowtéll will best fulfil this purpese. We thug rationally. 
reach forns ind@roduced into the grandest mediaéval churenes, 
and can nevsr dispense with model profiles of tne 18 th and 13 
ta centuries in similar problems, but all the labored refine- 
ments, such favorites in the late Middle Agés, should be set 
asidé as practically worthless, though interesting historicaly 

As tne side arches support the vaults, also keep the plers 
apart and also connect them, their horizontal lower gurfaceés 

may receive band-like patterns expression this connection. 

~ Smaller vaulted rooms, whose piers are connected by side-ar- 
ches and covered by ribbed vaults, do not require massive side 
arches if not exposed to unusual loads; such, arches may well 
be treated as broader ribs for small and lightly loaded vaults 
principally acting ag spanning arches. The wall-arches serve | 
“aS abutments on the walls for the compartments of the vaults 
and will then vbé portions of a sidé@-areh, so that the other. 
sections may be obtained from that of 2 rid by doubling On 
halving its breadth, Fig. 172. It ts then correct and one Of: 
tnaé simplest and cheapest decorative expedients to replace the 
angles of the ribs and arches ‘by chamfergs or. Cor eas to ner 
the effect of light and shade, | 

If columns are connected by arcnes, Roman and Renaissance. 
architects treated these arches like the classic architrave, Rk 
sven iorming cofiers in the under surfaces of thege afchivolts 
They either were wrong in treating arches like curved beams of 
stone, or cur ideas of the meaning of the form of the archi-, 
brave must be fncorrect, which cannot be the case. The archi-. 
trave form as a support ing stone beam above a colonnade, was 
peculiar to Crecian architecture, its division into several 
horizontal divisions, and the decoration of its under side by. 
band-like patterns, expressed the idea that the colums should 
be connected by a tightly stretched band, ‘Uponnwnich a load | 
might be laid without causing it to bend. But the Creeks thea 
séives employéd this architrave form to enclose windows and. 
dcorg, evenusing it as an archivolt*at tne aqueduct at Atnens, . 
and it therefore becomes untrue, or other ideas were associat- 
ea with these torms; Roman and Renaigaance masters here simply. 
accépted the Grecian forms, perhaps without understanding the — 
idéas associated with them by that psoplé, which appear to | 
have differed from those we pave been accustomed to nee | 
with the architrave. | 

The Classie styles considered an opening in a wall as morety 
2 hole, separated from the masonry of the wall by a bordering 
frame; but tne Middle Ages looked on an opening, producing the. 
appearance vy its simple splays or recessed steps, as if the 
wall had opened of its own acecrd, laying. bare its interior. 
It is evident | 


f? 


CHAP. TO. VAULTS. & 4 | REGS Re BAS 
Bordering frames are evidently not wanting even in mediaeval 
Walls, but are arranged beneath supporting sid@-archés, which 
Play the chief part, structural elements predominating, even 
in case of wheel windows and decorative works. The arcnivolt 
constructsa on the Czaeco-Roman principle unites well with the 
mediaeval vault, so long ag the pier affords separate supports 
fcr the imposts of the arches, so that each arch may be freely 
developed; but if the imposts are so formed that the rivs and 
Side arches intergect and interpenetrate at ‘their ends, tne 
arches cannot be developed throughout their extent, the piérs 
tnén become clustered pierg ag in the best médiaéval period, 
and the archivolt has then lost its Significance, and is it 
preferable to treat the rids and side arches in accordance. 
with mediaeval principles. bee eam eon Mota 

Ribbed vaults, like domes and Roman groined vaults, require 
kéystones for structural réagons, though light vaults neéd not — 
b@ unnecessarily loaded by the keystone; but if they require 
great strength, the diagonal ribs must be considered as projec 
ting arches, orpointed arches may be used; requiring spécial — 
loads at their apexes. The keystone is supported by the ribs 


y 
Bis ot “8 - 


eR 
se} 


and is most appropriately decorated by a suspended flower, a - 
garland of Ieaves and flowers, allegorical representations, 
shisldas, neads, €te., and its width may correspond to the greg 
greatest width of the arches at the point where the ribs abut 
against it, Fig. 173. If keygtones serve for suspension of 
chandeliers, cr ropes pass through them, they must be perfora- 
ted, and toeir decorations be artangéd around theecentral opea 
ing; if bells, materials, e¢tc., are to be hoisted through then 
they must take the form of a circle of vousscirs, and bo = aa 
decorations must be treated in accordance with the principles 
Sstablished for keystones of domes. — : aie tier ee 
several kinds of keystones are found in ornamental vaults, 
subordinated to gach other in rank. The principal keystone, 
cath. vault haying but one, should perhaps be decorated by scup 
tures, heads, €tc., the inferior ones by shields, symbols, etc 
While those of the third and fourth rank receive rosettes and. 
leaf-ornaments. Both the Middle Ages and the Renaissance trea 
treated keystones as massive, suspended, forms or pendants, _ 
which are especially appropriate if the vaults must either be 
heavily loaded, when they must appear heavy to the eye and be. 
tassively treated, or.if intended to recéive chandeliers, when 
they may have the forms of graceful suspended chandeliers. To 
use pendants for merely decorative purposés, when they-have no : 
meaning wnatever, is one of the many eBrors of the later Middl | 


Ages, and must be considered objectionable. VRE urn fogs Galsd Sok ek 
For the decorative treatment of the surfaces of thé compart- — 


mes - oe 


o> 


CHAP. 10. VAULTS. dw B.A. & 65. 
ments, we first have to consider them only so far as they are 
unplastered, or their construction is vistble. The sarlisr 
Middle Ages almost always constructed compartments of vaults 
of cut stone, sometimes with unusual dimensions, so that the 
magsive vaults eculd even resist fire, requiring corresponding 
ly powerful abutments and flying buttresses. Tne great activi 
ty of building during the 12 th and 13 th c@nturiés demanded a 
rapid mode of construction, tne vaulting requiring much tims — 
and money. No attention was paid to decorating the compart-. 
ments. It was toilgome to prepare the stones, that were not - 
large, and were mostly placed at a considerable distances fron 
the eye, so that little was done to esthetically treat the 
vault. Neatness and accuracy of execution, a goft and yet 
clear play ef light and shade cn tas. gurfaces of the vault, re 
sulting both from their arrangement “and the genera! plan, rem- 
ained during the entire Middle Ages and is now the principal 
requirements for a pleasing effect of the vaults, which was 
furtner heizghtened by the bond uged, and by tas Maga OF, the, 
vistble surface and the lines of tts joints. é 

Modern vaulted construction seldom uses cut gtone Hae eenmek 
ly brick for filling compartments of vaults: tne most antural | 
decorations consist in forming a border and in the use of deco. 
rative bonds; the more carefully the vaulting is exectted, the. 
mors pléasing will be the effect obtained; the mosaic - likes. 
joints of brick masonry have an appearance allisd to that of. 
textile fabrics, and an analogy in the treatment Of vaults — 
thus arises, to that of freely suspendéd tapestriss and of es 
textile fabrics, a space- -enclosing masonry recalling the. tent— 
roofs, both by its structural bond and its external surface, ae 
that were suspended between pillars for protection from light, | 
wind and weather, external enemiss— and pene ahha: aia 

6. Cloister Vaults. a Sas 

Not much may be said of hiotetse varie. addtional: to. the 
preceding discussion: of vaultg: they are the converse of groin. 
vaults, becauss, though produced by intersection of tunnel | 
vaults, al those parts are retainéd, which are omitted in 
eluate ches tabars At the ae of intersection, the vond save? 


roe 


cieiseee Bg Oe compartments ae | the sume Eide tent as in Z 
compartment vaults, and cloister vaults on polygonal plans ap-~ 
proximate in form to domes, whose decorative treatment. Oey ae 
also follow. | ss Meo ueRod tes 

. 3. Renaissance. Vautta f 

The Renaissance, when not directly using Roman ‘or, eat Sorat 

vaults, usually decorated by painting or stucco a ecReral Y 
; 


; i a4 ies 
* », « ‘ c s* 2 ¥ 
~— of (irene . 


te) 


partment vailts of thi 


* 


CHAP. 20. VAULTS. ee Leng BAL Oe. 
lyemployed low compartment Tenia: in combination with the go- 
called welsh-groined vault, woich likewise afforded large eur? 
aces for decoration in relief and: painting.  Such- cOmartment ~ 
Baults were mos tly vaulted from their. angles ‘toward their een- 
, tres, Fig.178, and are more or less modifications of domes and | 

cloister vaults. in combination with portions of tunnel vaults, 

and may be decorated by forming ‘borders,. ey gleater prominence . 2 
of the centre, or by accenting thé transition of one form of 
vault into another, in accordance with the uge of decorative. | 
bonds: these ‘acoen tuations may ‘be. ‘produced | ‘by projeeting ribs,” 
whose purpose ig more decorative than structural, and whose = 
ing ensect lone. may Pie tae det sreiehes ese kinds. aoe 


the flatter they are, ar 
re eoegbiteah oe! Rad ake 


t ine fe cna: ‘g t uc 20... es Ey 


To vthe Renaissane: & y 


: glieh Gotaie, ra ee to. Be 
man and Renaissance vaults. Phey are Peally combinations of 
anmralar surfaces, and therefore surfaces of rotation, whose. - 
sé€tions may be™ “etreular ‘or otherwise, BO arranged that. the we 
térspaces existing between their upper bases, are either fille - 
by domes, segyental domes, of pointed vaults,’ Fig. 177; Gf phe > 
half diagonal fs taken aa the. radius of the vault instead of * 
the nalf side, diagonal sections of the vault ‘are. semicircles, — 
and right. sections ‘are pointed arches, wnos® crowns ard peta 
by the difference of the half. diagonal and half. span; a ‘sharp 
and gradually vanisiting. intersection line of convex curvature 
Piges from: them to the apex of the vault, ~Fig.178; each comp 
artment.of the vault is borne by ane support, ‘and is in plan a 
square portion cut from an annular surface of. cifcular section 
and these surfaces closely oa each other. without leaving any 
gaps, ‘between ‘them ree Se Dol a : 

Thése fan vaults haye Hondiniivs very characterdebis in their. 
external appearance and vividly recall the folaige of the fan ~ 
palm, uniformly spreading oUtward on all sides, and must alway — 

be decorated by accenting the horia ontal lines in accordance an 

‘with the horizontal lines of stone construction. Very pleasig 
' @€ecorative motives are connectéd with the domical surfaces usé 
-Qs 6d. for filling the interspacés between the compartments of fe 
the vault, cireular in plan, and the arrangement of semicircu- 
lar ‘diagonal sections léads to a peculiar treatment o1 tne key 
stone. Arches are unnecessary. in fan vaults; mostly mot har<: 
monizing with thg@a, out cosatractions in etena are poseldle,” 


e 


a 


We CHAP, 10, VAULTS. — ee ae CS Sang awe pe re 8%. 
B® wnicheconsist of a series. of fan-like. ribs connected Came 
mm: their interspaces | filled with: stone slabs. English ‘mediaeval. 

fan vaults are generally. based on this ‘principle. Seidel fete! 
Duc. Aen © fan. vaults built of cast tron aig 


A Seating: Dicer: suited ie ae : sions 7 and, fo 
-@ trangition to the support, were ‘more. oar ree cle rly under 
stood and expregged ‘by: different nations The lower end o 
the support. Was not. characteriz Zed at alt, 
Was BEL ED: An the Parte peice a ne 


: pabalter stripes; 
eoLy serving. to “support a. Agha: tent roof, 
represented as being wound with title 
a These general congiderations. of the fofnation. ‘of support 
Bowers not only: eontrolling during Past times, but are 80 bdo ty 
i eS s 


ae capital, was introduced in W. Asia; the cushion appears to: 


x 


: | CHAP. ae COLUMNS. ck ay ee Layee 68. ae 
and will so remain for all future time. “Yet. they are modified 
in detail by the different nations, ‘as well as {n accordnace : 
with the problen to which they were applied, and their connec- © 
tion with other architectural details. The difterent Sb pre 
of the columns réstricted their forms within certain limits, a 
and are first to be carefully understood, if one wishes to re-. 
view the multitude of forms of columns, ‘that have arisen in 
all parts of the: world. ° te discover all the ideas that influ- | 
enced the different ea da. the formation at bie dele ts. ann 
impossidle. — eS , | 

Why. iheyptiansen tones Vee! their Bone ia dons a no. other” 
cannot be explained, but. only this. may be discerned, that a. 
need clearly: existed of digtinguishing between the upper ana 

9 bt v eee ca flowers. of the dotus- 


: ri oo b bad 


; 1h 


seemataration | din the selinenat oe the ae 

ecture, that the idea of @ support, whos@ = 

ad express the: conflict with a burden, — ‘is nota 

Bec a bate jhat of holding-Wp something, and of crown- 
ing the upper’ end ag being the héad of the column, stands in 
tne first: place, ‘bogether with symbolic ideas not now under-. 
stood, That tne Doric eolumn is. closely allied ‘to the Egyptia 
can scareély be disputed, | ‘aso it esséntiall differs only in foe 
the form of theecapital, in which the idea of receiving the 
load of thé entablature. on’ a special ° cushion-like Support ap- 
pears to haye been originally expressed by pointed}leaves with 
recurved points. “Whether this was” actually the idea the Doric 
capital was intended to embody, or another now unknown tO” is 
Can neyer be ‘determined witha absotute. certainty. The. forms: 0 
Lhe low of leaves. with recury ed points, not only employed: ‘ag 3 : 
‘supporting but. also separating member in all Grecian. architec: 
turs, and as,an imitation of this in Roman architecture to We 
conndéetstwo. entirely different Objects, appear from their oe 
ivation to be modifications of primitive form-¢léments, such - 
as likewise are represented in the leaty crowns of ‘Bgyptian: : 
Capitals, andsin Persian-and Indian columns, that “remind one =. 
of fringéd Spear shafts. If we wish to retain tnege forms of 3. 
béa f. batids,; not h&storical but. practical and wechnical reasons 
‘must eéterming tasir. chafagter. shore ° 

A peculiar. form of capital, later. gaily developed i the dey 


6 theimotive for ot such capitals; this cpshion a iedene bo 


iy 
~~ 


4 oy Tweed 


yee. save . 


(just as tne Doric. capital Wag: | 
guppert a figure,” “paln,. oF af @croteria. “However tne form of 


-*ble to the architect: when. iw dt ebeet ena. are to be made deci-- 


. Capital, is merel: 
all sides, having no proper abacus, and ‘ne Corinthian retains 


Posette, and. the palm, as well as. half -developed buds, 


‘1 OW OR act: ‘the Monument of Lysicrates, as @ contrast to. these, ne, 
the leaves. of the second. row are. deeply serrate ana have. deep 


“CHAP, 11. COLUMNS. ' oo RAL Cire 
support the entablature, _..We also gee on representations. on. 
sés the lonic capital direetly. used as the seat ol a. BELG: ; 


tae [onic capital may have ori; lated, Hts origin as well. as. 
that of the Doric, hag no. signi ficance for our architecture, 
since the ctrele of ideas of ancient vases. lie’ wholly caeatea! 
human ideas in. general and those generally valid. ee ae 

The motiye of the capital with ‘two different. forms of sides, 
perfected in the donicecapital, Will. always remain indispensa-_ 


dedly prominent, ‘mediaeal ‘architecture did. not exclude. the | 
two-sided. Capital, BAL. the Tonic capital is to. be used for 
the angle ‘column of building with ‘porticoes, whieh. igs not in 
accordance with its nature, a. happier golution must be sought, 
than that found for gimtlar cases by the Creeks. We can only 
déstgnate such unskilful expedients as errors, with. those for 
which the itoman lave been so. muce lamed, and that- have. been 
SO thoughtlessly imitated by moder es He are. scareel, 
better than the ie Se ae chite fol c 
by. the date-:CGothie or 1 2er 
Ag’ in the olde: 


eyptian eg Of. the Do: | 
a bdeveleeeca Mall ¢ “with: AR: is. allied the 
Corinthian, . just as tne Egyptian pell sapital is to the: ‘latter 
but the bell capital of. the > ‘Egyptians 42°54 fully. developed on: 


tne abacus, and very | fully, developed scrolls and ‘leaves gup- 
port the angles. Ot this. — Two principal forms Of. flowers, t 


the inte?spaces. ‘between leaves” ‘and. stems, and ‘form terminal 
and dividing parts: ‘Or the stronger branches, while asta 
branches disperse ina tree ‘Play of lines. ~The- Corintatan Ly 
capital-is no longer, lixe the Egyptian. peel capital, a 
ber of similar flowers and ‘leaves ‘bound together, but plant © 
forms grow up. around ‘the. ‘pell in a way that betrays ‘ee apron 
study of nature by the Greek: sculptor; if. bhe bell be: largely 
visible, ea in: the. Tower mat. the Winds, it ay closely. ecyerdd | ae 
by a Pow.of- ‘applied lea av ES. cA gecond row. of leaves” covers” the 
lower ends cf thé first; if one row is ‘compesed of*uncut edged — 
leaves, live the. upper. ‘ones at the Tower. 3 ‘the Winds, ere the 


iacigions-cr eyes, such as are not only found on the Acanthug, — 


but on many Compositae, | the Thistle, Poppy, and: roany Unbelli f= 
 erae, . It is very. generally the case taat no particular. sae! d 


form ig. imitated in *the’ Corintaian pant ial, bute “special and | a] 


characteristic. a a ea, | aap: 


. - CHAP. ae * goLumns. cas veto rhs man Se ¥9.* 
characteristic bari: are borrowed foom: the wlane world, and 
these are developed in accordance with tne. laws of. ‘growth of 
act ua, } plants, thus creating an ideal Flora, whosé foliage. ee 
seeks those parts of the capital geometrically most inpeeian ig 
the ends of their leaves and: branches recurving in free ‘growth: | 
or rolling up under the abacus, their flowers appearing hose 
strive for lignt just as flowers @0 in nature. All the sepa- 
rate parts of the completed Corinthianceapital gaPe ‘in the. best 
relation togeach other, but the Roman forst becam petrified, io: 
as if cast in a mould, ‘naturistically/swelled. and yet ary. Th 
The motive of the ey tala tomas lin eee ‘Aas ‘become so "ind tspensa- 


ples ‘eqaul the: crectan! Scaotie lh. Mee | 

We may almost gay of Roman. pee ee ay Wikeeten | ae then 
Ag good igs: old, and whatever is new is bad." The changes” made 
in: Guectan: architecture. aM the Romans had no Teter ees, to. the 


and chietly. practical, — ‘Phe Doric agents. adioat the. only 
one, in whose transformation an improvement . tee be eee 
it hae indeed becone entirely dist ines pd the Gi 


each ‘other. Ne peck ae roe : 
The oman Comcen order, “tipet developea BY: combining form 
from Ionic and Corinthian capitals, for uge in buildings. of so 
eral storieg and ‘to enpich the repertory ‘of form, may justly 
be thrown asids, employing the graceiully decorated Corinthian 
like capitals ‘of the early Renaissance in its. place, that. vary 
the motive of ‘the Corinthian capital with a free play or ‘forn 
The Tuscan order, which the Florentines ‘of; the 16: th and ee 
th esnturies preferred. from local pregudices, holding 4 ae to. ae 
an invention cf tne Etruscans according to ‘statements of vib 
vious, and also for practical reasons, it being a simplest © | 
order, harmonized well with rusticated . masonry, - justified. 7 
as 2 Kind - of reduced Dorie order, or as. .being thet ‘lowest ‘type. 
of a ccmplete. order in the classic. gene). “although ‘opposéd to” 
all Vitruvius)’ s precepts; dutifully obeyed’ by the’ Renaissance 
wé "should not employ it merely because the ancients did. 50," 
unless it suited our design, in eg thetic propriety. Phe’ rigid Bs 
precepts of Vitruviug and the whole. ocus - -pocus: of. antique tae 
chitectura]l forms, not only moduleg and parte, but. tetany ane 
and metopes, viae and guttae, mutules and dentils,.etc.,— 
should be thrown aside as soon as they no longer fulfil any - 
reat “PaRpodey net? original sense being. chiefly: unknown tot 


a 


ey vee.) ee. oe ” 
Hahah. 
, 
. r 
¥ - / 
. 
A 
% 
‘yt 
' 
. 
4 : J 
% 1 ‘ 4 : 


x “CHAP. ae COLUMNS. " Uo eoue OAL om. 
ug ‘or not eorresponding to our circle of ideas, has no bindin 
force oF Eee MO nave thus saved sufiicient send tae Be arpa 


al couetnetats ae en 
No. need here ve “tor. Pesink hag our 


Vas 


aigtorically important form-treatment ay iste Dorin gt 
antine and Mohammedan capitals; | médiaéval a on 
shows new ideas in that direction, no: val 
preferred, to accent the capitals, and tae 


tae. Pe clteig aoe tn the ne omg 


Of ti . faverite ee coe 


aneny : raat TAs, 


gets pies 
sate coli 


ye . Rea 


tbe satis 


by the sepeeiatly justtt 
in iron architecture, 
‘By tne spate gt 


appre aha its need tne. abacus 
capital tabest. adapted to vaulted constructi 
and the mode of its formation tter 
verdes « et te ) 


“quartered so a. 
ance masters zare dine fat 


“these  fohatag oe” ° 
chitecture. — = : 

The dotnet e 
early ketes Oy. 


6) 


the Qlameter 


etree tle 


yi * 


tte Pe TA? bey Oe RAR Ae Meee? 


Oe cab. 21. eeobimid | ae eg 
By columns harnonize 80: epecees Bi with Pity tech aoe 


ivecturey 1b es not i poaanete tO. firmly gahete ve. ne pro 
mm ions of the classic orders without recow ge to the ex 
Me of placing it on pedestals, ‘or being tro Sater 
Mm ces of all kinds. ‘Only in the same cla: 
to the classic arenitect Saat 


| Bak rte Bon 
m mediaeval Sronltestuse, 


tion, 
Classic styles 


i. 

i 
wes. 

Pay 
- af) 
a: 
sae 
4 


seal 
aha 3 


Heron ie 


Pree 
iy second. 
ree porting’ nasetve: oun 
pork bat cee Oe 


oy _coumais. 


“4 projections from: be whe pes: 
Ryden to treat the solu as ‘triste 


nea tg " res " 
eww « 


dooomat ret nd ‘symbol ical meaning, whose prinetpal ‘types ret 
ain the forms of actual buildings. eRe AAS a 

The motive of apirally twisted forms ta fou : 
* nationgor. tie- -rods,” as- opposed. to ategta, 
structions of tubes, 
are. eiiployed for the. most diverse. purposes, 

A word still remins in. reference to Caryatids, - 
hermes figures, and» whatever elae. remaing in the 
architecture, of the. more op legs thoughtful wor 
sculpture, as well as medieval figure -eolumns ete 
that uneritically. admires. everythi a 1 an 
it, merely ‘begause it wag davented by ne Creel 
as @ heresy the mere question, whether 
m porch of the ‘Erechheium is. entirely ‘beau 1 
B® alone. esteem it a Barocco idea, ‘however bea 
» if it have no ‘symbolical meaning, nd to VF 


ee 


—_ 3 


B execrable dispropor 
- is not mere le peek 
| & 

; | 


| t in introducing hu 
‘berg; the. Best “ n £6 


ee rigid @bontieotviral: ‘eonatrt n 
ced, if these are. anything else than | 
tecture, _ ‘Figure. decoration of all ktnd 
me Dut even desirable im ar ure, being 
my O™namentazion, but it sho ould not replace at 
me These eons iderat tons n ppeal 

| cCauge. the idea of weight F not ti yp ant, | 
m causes in the greater arts and in construc Wonsthe 
mot rigiditytin eonatriction. 


my carvarids ‘and’ atlantes’ tarough’ Viveavtaa, 
in. eee without. shes Of th 


ae ’ 


| CHAP, 21l.. COLUMNS, KA 70. 
These classical heroes and demigods should not be comdenned, ? 
but should be left to the places for which they are alone sui- 
ted, to pure decorative art, to interiors OF apartments, 0. 
numurots purposé@s, and the minor arta. : 

The base of the column Was considered a basé-gtone oF cush- 
icn for distributing the pressure of the column’ and its load 
over as large an area of foundation as possibie. . Hardly. any 
other architectural form has become so firmly naturalized ahd 
fotind such wide accéptance as the Attic-lonie base, Pig. 179; ¢ 
it has always ‘been used from the best Greek pertod until now, 
aithough with many modifications) and the same decorative mo 
tive recura in each style, of treating its convex torus as & 
soft and yislding cushion, ag a row of l@aves, or 
ropes, that seems to fetain the foct of.tae colum 
The scotia separating the two torugseg tsa preferably 
bY a row.of slender | savas. . # 

We’ have brisily considersd the treatment of, tne coluan accorm 
ding.to the idéag: of @ifterent nations and the probiems to 
which it was applied,-as well’ as ats connection with other ar- 
chitectural members. Tae purposes for which columns are gen- 
érally used are principally works of architecture, of art-ind 
ugtry, or of the minor arts: the first requires the funetion, 
of sUpport to. be strongly expressed, but in the othera, tats. 
receédée behind other functtons. The classic styles not only — 
introduced in their ordere different style- tendencies, but al- 
so tones corresponding to the character of a particular build 
ing, as Well as to its different stories, tomanly strength am 
gravity in the Doric styils, to grace and dignity in the sae 
and tO magnificence in the Coriathian. a 

In accordance with theae tones, the function of supporting - 
is more or lege strongly expressed in different kinds of-.¢ol< 
wans, the. treatment of the mass of a building passing from ¢g 
grave to graceful and thence to rich. The idsa that tae ¢0l-. 
wan is to suppor or rais® &n object, the function of support. 
then receding into the background, is most strongly expressed 
in: classical memorial colutms ‘and in the rows of columns plac 
ed before facadés by Roman and Renaissance architects, and | 
crowned by atatues, so that one might well say of these colum 
that they supported nothing; yet. to throw them aside for that 
reason would be to overicok one of their most f{mportant func- 
tions and to forget that a large number cf Grecian memorial 
columns would be condemn2d, as well as many Roman* and se 
anes works, + 

Memorial columns Would likewise have a freer range of form, 
because as monuments, thet function of supporg reee@asay and 48° 
hin possibility of «ea to the top by a winding stalroaat 


weanies? . 


and the Necking. 


Te. 


Fyr recurved. If the architrave. were placed directly. on the 


a ee oe 


‘CHAP, i - coLtnays. thy EA 78. | 
betomes. a principal aim, @ sprial gc recgeuett of stch a ‘colum 
ia not only senaibee, but indeed becomes requisite, and a mo- | 
tive of tne manifold. structural and decorative compositions, — si 
that may be derived. ‘trom it. The idea of tae. memcerial column: ae: 
may thus be developed from the simple sepulchral monument to de 
the’ formal tower through - @ series of: ‘Possible solatieng, Aa 

“2. 4 Coltumas: in Detatl cc. ay ere. 
In regard to the treatment of the details of eciungs and es 
pecially the capitals and forms of shafts and bases, numerous — 


-reilections may be made, assuming the classic orders to be mgt 
sepepicd as something consecrated by tradition and above erit- | 


icism, but that the entire progress of. architecture since sos 
classical period, ag well as that due to the Middle Ages and 
Renaissance, be: takem as @ basis of ‘these oy ee 
a. Form of the. Capital. oa. a 
‘Tne most primitive treatment of She. cagital: in the oldest 3 
styles already divided 1t into three parts, the Bell or concae 
or convex principal portion of the capital, whether in the . 
form of the Dori¢ abacus or the Corintnian bell, the ‘Roueiey 
he principal portion of the Doric capital 
hig ted echin@gg Fig. 180, which is separa- 


DE 


y several eee. or Father ‘the row Of 


is the atrongly p: 
ted from the sha f: 
Leavy Ps. Bee es 8 


182. eh kone dase not eet pahanetis = on ie aS 
o _teperoeaeaty raised céntral ‘portion being Lert tO: receives 
that. the Lage oF abacus are no® loaded. Fig. 183. Be 


row of leaves: beneath ‘the neak- bande: whose potnee’ are row 


abacus, the. ‘capital: would ‘be una ymmetrically loaded, and falar 
strongly progecting angles. might: be brokén off. es 
iti Dorie: ane rats: were ‘pernaps partially imitated from 


recent the ground: idea se the ‘Grecian Doric Rrekaie sential 
retain the adopted motive though without strictly adhering. ae 
ite form, and vagy the theme in manifold ways; the Renaissance @ 
followed this Roman mode of treatment, sometimes combining | cae 
iorms resembling Idnie and Corinthian with the Doric. | 

The first essential alteration of the Doric capital by the. A 
Romans consisted in lessening ita projection, giving the ‘archi & 
tray ea /Sreaa ee ely smal to the upper diameter of the cole 
the @°> By ep Sara” eee ee eat | 4 Be 


Cw ee A I es SS 


——— 


load: If the abacug were made octagonal, ‘these corners disap 


-Of the upper part of the abacus, - ‘and so *profiling the. edge of 


@d by the echinus. The abacus then loses its meaning as a ¢ 


Doe i cc ee EAL ate ha Layo 
he AS Ee Br ae Pe 
Pe * ait 


CHAP. Te COLUMNS, Pe ee alee rn 
the Schinust then. ‘becomes’ of less importance, its. section ap 
approximating @ quadrant, and the smaller projection. of : 
capital required. compensation in its increased. height or 12 
of its necking, that the mass of the capital might not be rr 
ced tco much in proportion ‘to the: colum. The neck wag then 
separated from. the shaft by a- bolder member, an astragal : 
smal} fillet,. or ee: beaded astragal, cand was: ‘decorated Dy Pos 
evtéa,, palms, ete. + the abacus: being ornamented by a row of 
leaves or a cyma.. Besides tae normal capital, two. very 
forms have ipemhawe: ca: us, one from Pompeii, the otner fro 
the Baths of Dioelstian, big. 184; the necking of the firs 


inet poe 


a flat curve, While tae cyma of the other is not formed ike. 


an eehinug but ig composed of vertical leaves. Several ‘kinds | : 
OF, capitala may be composed. Of forms taken trem. different cap- 
itals, using two rows Of leaves, and are ‘suited | 
‘vwaried problem ‘by their or ater. ‘ 


BS 


or less height, t 
in the limites of sne: motive of the Roman Dorie rapive bircte ae 

The Tuscan capital, “Fig. 185, ‘restored in aceordance. with Vi 
truvius, is nothing. put a. simplified Roman form, just ap the = 
Tuscan order is mereiy(a reduction. of a-clagaie columnar order © 
to tne most essentia! motives... This order was much used Be eae 
thé early Renaissance as better’: harmont Zing with. rusticated 
masonry, and combined with That, it ta especially suited tO 
fortifications, engines: ing structures, ¢ city gates, barracks, 
and massiv« 6 ordinary buildings. |. i es 

The abacus of the Doric capital beepeete tte: angles consider — 
ably beyond the echinus, making’ its. under gide visible; GRBs e 
Romans decorated this lower surface: DY sunken panels, ‘the. ) 
weakéning the angles, already: in. danger of breaking under 


pear, though the character of the. capital changes,’ and it. 

would appear compressed and only suited: to” receive an ‘impost 
blotk of the same form ‘ne angles . Of the abacus: might be re. 
duced by making the diameter of the ‘echinus equal to the gids 


the abacus that its square under eurface would “be circumser{d. 


ering block and takes the character of a special support. for 
the load, Fig.186; the under side of this support must then be 
octagonal and pass from this into a square at: top. All these. | 
forms of abacug have their meaning, eapecially wien. the eapi- = 
tal receives vaults or arehes, when a braod mass is Placed on i: 
@ proporticnally thin support; this is especially true- of iron = 
architecture and cf ircn columne: supporting vaults. ; Fie 
Finally, one méans of supporting the anglés of the abacus 
‘ists in employing some decorative motive on the capital, 


* 


‘ent though ugmeaning expedient. POL: placing above the capital a 


enitablature with. ftieze andceornice. — Aside from the. fact— ‘thatc:. 


‘whens it 1s desired Haeberg a. pe 
‘the echinus; the use 


fuetaaeen which’ tee ne or 


retained: on the eth the eo itvended Beets aon 


ce MO ouaBe ae ‘coLmas. en NE 
after ‘the precedent of the ‘Renaissance, to f111 wae ‘space: Gai 


ween the echinus and the angles of the abacus; the Renaissance — 
- weed” for this: ‘purpose small heads) of. animals and” men, dscorat._ e 
‘ed the capital by dolphins or. cornucopias, gaPlands "OF; flower, sag 


cr clasp-like volutes, ee according to. the employment of 
the capital in. buildings more or less. Tichly decorated, 

Roman: and” Renaissance. architecture almost. always. ‘crowned [a3 
abacus by @ Pow of. small pare he ee pees the abacus s 
varied in different heres ier 0 the projection 
desired, which ‘Pe bapa, 


yf aay a ne eS is 


the Reterfal in watch, 4 
of a profile for the | 
és: the: eee ele 


eae 


| an 1 ag. 
The neck of the eolunn ma: 
changed into @ second Pow of. 


, trom) Faeg bum, or it | 


The elasgsic ‘orders were seinem. 
construction; when they were comb 
mans a very. troublesome — 


Spe 


sf har puliatae: ‘and. 


coasary;. if th Was + omitted. in aremeies 


sonar ‘and: eres Cor rag fs hit upon the truly consist- 


ffagment of the architrave, oP sometimes a: part. of the complet 


such a' block of the architrave is. meaningless, when ‘the colunm 
and the lower. part. To eas the vaults. are viewed. diagonally, Its — 
mags appears. ungraceful, heavy and. unpleasing, — this effect. be- 
coming still worse with a capital of the graceful Corinthian, 
type. Phe Grecian Doric. ve cae ‘te. Teast bel tet ite os 
bess aba) oc tir e ; 


oe aupport. cannot be. oni ted ay ease ‘of perigee 


the fipone: eae t 


Pee with ‘the need 
SO are 


gee by. ine paliae tae or the Shek iteate. ee 
ae bees ee. desirable to ‘Place: the: sree aan 


ain taeir: form of architrave, | as walls do all. other for Siig one 
rhe Suhabigrure: in case. ‘these maatene: columns: oe Soren Coes 


oe 7 Reet an Fenacgaute: oreraneebel, katie 
sigaase! and vara a ‘know-no: eeeine means © 


vault, Tires Rea sn eobae. yet ote Gaia ugly. bieck, shay 


t * 
nade beautiful by pe Fienens _Asooter tot, a mokive a8, ae 
duced, sonst le : ; os, 


es : section are ‘to be arranged in 
na airperenes| of: the section of he column 
3 most Pleasing proportions of the ag 
‘The support BAY OF openly. be ercwned by a row of leaves o. 
a plain block, be flat, concay: 
with Fosettes, iSmanents, ‘decorated A a Che: 
; at x : bed 


If.a form of architrave remains ‘on. the: int id 
80 elsewhere, the. addition OL this. ‘support is ‘unnecessa ¥;. but 


ise 


Nate) 


columns attached -to-and’ projecting from the wall need 


Dae 


ACHAP, TL 1. “-coLums, ie ae ae BAL 80. ae 
wal} columns, the broken. cornice always. ae an effect SB oar 
mass, léss unpleasing than the entablature block over free col 
unne; if the columns and capitals are entirely freé from the 
walle, with a broken. cornice geen in the worst way, or diago- 
bare the mass Madea on the. capital. will ‘still be less than — 


y "tea | Oo pels 
ding. from tain water Panning z downwards, 


the Seison projected on. S11 sides. like. es otorehie wai ch. 
meals be SS 


to a Corea ney ets tn ee mer 
Roman. echinus, decorated. by leaves: “but wi thor : 


cymatium or Lesbian cyma, “the ecking: of She cine 6 omitted Bs: 
or ig decorated ‘Like that of the Roman. Doric by palm leaves, © 
rosettes, and similar ornamental. forms, according ag it. heh a 
res more oe ess height. | The cushion ‘ig treated a various. 
Ways: .- these being first referred to the front view a 
volutes with their eyes, then to the side view. 
aissance architects really understood how to- “make he fa 

the Tonic capital beautiful, although one must admit. ‘that. the 
Renaissance strained every ‘nerve. hoa Leathe the peupeneaens 0: 
its Tonic eapitals. — 


See Barr, 


"ay 


chap. pikes coMnnis, CRNIER hen e oe, ae ‘BL. 
nor. Renaissance magterg were sunaina with the more f 
Grecian Tonic capitals... In the most * beautiful, aa t } 
‘the Propyleum at Eleugis, the. eushion is Algnest at 
and its section diminishes towards. the eyes 1¢ 
“tte front surface fiat with en. enclosing b 
Tn other ‘capttals, as! those at Bl ti 
“treated ‘as a) hellow,. and in the ¢ 
entire ‘cushion is treated like W 
- oLner, and hollowed “out on, Liane 
ween the cushion and Tonic ae 
leaves. ue THe finer Meteor . 


Beis oF: ‘Apotio: at oe ae ap th has- ous 
Cn. all: four sides, 


iss toh sree are, ee acre ois ee! 
Later capitals, followed, . 

reat. the « sushion as ne} 

- edge only, no thick 
“Hal genet hecons 


aes SRE P anosie 
Tater capltale supported : ane angles of the ae B 


curved: ‘fot was: “there re. a 
LG at: Miletus; pines Farge pees a produces. by 
curvature, eaeily broxen Off. by the load, Thede were cl 
ee She. the bacon Was. aaveee: a gels. with ot fved edges. 


os he a | 


I i .& 
4 By 2 Bee ie 
k “i VE eee cd } 
$ H et), ty, Oh ears 
; ‘ee ein’ 
2 ae ayy a ah he) 


‘and centre, Fig. ing. 


CHAP. LUNS. : ORM Be. 
Centre flowerg of palm leaves do not profect in. plan beyond 
the angles of the square, so as to unnecessarily increase the 
dimensions: of th@ block Pequired. If the centre flower ig’ to 
be covered by the°a@baeus, its edge curves outward at the angle 
nese two forms of abacus were first us- 
ed on the Monament ‘of Lysicrates and an antae capital from Bl- 
eusig. THe profile of thé Corinthian abacus remains a slight- 
ly or strongly. coved slab in Grecian, Roman and Renaissance ar 
chitecture, 4nd ig crowned by the Ionic, cyma; the astragal 8 ep 
arateés the: capital from.the shaft, and retains in all these 


styles. thé form of a plain or beaded astragal, connected with | 


the shaft by a fillet and an apephyge or cove. Tnis abacus 1s 
sometimes decorated in richer Roman @xamplés by @ Punninge orn- 
amént or by vertical léaves, the. so-called pipes; \ 

The Renbissance introduced a freer form of Corinthian-like 
capital, which bears a ‘purely dscorative e¢haracter and was 
trang formed in most various Ways: to accord with diverse prob- 
lems... Mediaeval architecture hag done nothing for the treat -' 


ment Of the capital on the Corinthtan principle; ft first sep-— 
atated the abacus from the capital frequently, even for prac. 


Gical Peasons, as the bel] of the capital was the work of a 
sculptor, while the abacus was that of a stone-cutter when not 


decorated: so the bell ttself was erowned by a slab, Which was. 


ircular, square of concave, according to the arranyenent of 

the capital. The abacus, placed abovs this bell-slab, could 

‘hen be square or be suited to the impost of the afch, sométi- 
polygonal, sometimes elreular, om could take a form compo- 


ltke capital also received a second innoyat ton for practical 

reasons, worthy ef imitation frequently; it is not ges 

from a single block but. of two layers of stone, “@ach of 

two rows Of leaves having its onw bell -glab, so. that the lower 

bell does not appear so much sé@parated as in many classic ca 
Gothic architecture frequently developed the abacus in aced 


dancs with the principle just stated as a kind of support, its 


bas® set so far behing the greatest diameter of the capital as 


to-avoid. any projection of the support beyond the bell.- In me - 


diaeval vaulted construction the angles, leaves and bude of 
the capital’appear less like organic parts of the capital, bem 


bént downwards by the load, or whose upward growth is hindered » 


by the abacus, than like parts. indteating the direction of the 
rios of the vault, or like light garlands, that seem to have 
sprung from the rnlly organized structural Mass aS a necessary 
expression of “its nature, ~ 

Just as the lonic capital accents its two directions, medias 
sal architecture introduced the metive of grouped ccorbels to 


of pol ygonal or other elenents. The mediaeval Corinthian- | 


i 


; CHAP, 11. “COLUMNS, ae | noc eae oer een Ls 
cmphasizé the directions,: and which are supported by @ peparat] 
‘capital, oP spring directly from the support, eG can carry an| 
entablature of the springing block of several arches, and not - 
only clearly indicate the directions but also lessen the spans. 
Fig.19&.° The Renaissance afterwards took up thia happy motive’ 
and sometimés treated it in the. most graceful way in accordd~ | 
ancé with classic decorative rules. Heads, | acanthus | leaves. ea 
and other Rae ee borrowed | from classic see eae may be app- 


A 


their purpose, Baar 
be Form of ‘the Sat 


if the “eolum be a ae at its lower ta! cr 


nouidwee d 
énen exceed pe he 
ted to ¥ne uncu 
dings, * Z 
the eoldan: 16 compe 
lar mouldings, Wh n 
shaft, may be. formed 
the. proporticns, pnd thy 
profiles, ‘height, ¢hght r he: 
stances” ane one: roach and q 


A broad } pana: wound a ‘the ae 
x nd-lLike. pattern as ornament in 
aft: itself may’ ‘be. covered by ‘al a OF 
or relist, scale-like, tapestry- like carvings, 
work, OP. suspended ribbons, ° garlands, and Le cues = 
tes, which hese meg ak use base Bye uns: coluran. oo Renaissanc 


aeecmniae tubes 
orated shafts. of: Set limias hye, 
c. : Bases. of Columna.! 9... ete a 
The pubdece form of base Te: ‘tne’Thagan,, whieh’ merely con 
sists of a topus or a base moulding: instead of. pes torus, the 
plinth, and & filletiwith a cove. forming | the ‘transition to th 
shaft, Fig. 200. Phe picher:: Attic- esis and Corintnian bases” 


i ‘ 
i r 3 te mM 2 
4 roe . . + , ya ae; t - heels ee tae 8 toe 


| GHAP, 21. COLUMNS. BAL BAe 
retained normal profiles of Noman type in ths’ Renaissane@ and 
could. gcarcely now be displaced, Fig. 201.’ They fulfilieg toek 
their purpose in the best Wary , ang are readily decorated: by oF 
hamental elements representing tne fixednéss of the column in| 
its postiton,, and the yielding quality of the cushion béneata 
tt, inthe form of small mouldings, cushions and rows of | ¢av-: 
268. lonic bases from Asta Minor nave very little importance 
dor northern architecture, with.their peculial, proportions and 
forme, put difierent ‘variat tongs Of the: profile of the base hav! 
meanEne and are jJostiftiam, and: may pe developed paterly by sim- 
pl&fLication: or enrichnent, partly by increasing or diminishing 
their projsetions and heights, Fig. 202. These; modifteations. 
of the profsile principally depend on. the position of theweye, | 

Wisaeee high above it requiring high bases, of account « 
gbive i6fe-shorten{ng, and the base may be low when — 
p dom aboyey for'it 16 evident that the height of a base 
the direction a, Fig. 203, would appear quite difier- 
ent w en geen in the directicn b. : 

Jigt ag. the ang giés of the Doric abacus overhang tne echinus,. 
producins danger of their bapne upoken off by unequal loading, 
a Vacant pp.ce eee tween the lowest torus and theain- 
P., Sext the wlinta in thet OF th } elassi@pnbase, so that tae 


ait - ‘ er. ‘ ei Bs is, ay o » Mee y ate vet ayo 7 ; + ¥o9% Z y" 
so , aay Ded tA SS ‘S| $ é : carh a4 eA He be Lc: F r Bch. Med t 3, y al 250 | Cc a 3 ef be Gilt gee bs 
2 } : Bn] “e Dee F ys A te z * 3 Pig ee Li gi a 
. i a 4 f pO ie 1 Pe CEE g 4 148 © re) Vid tend ft S oe (ey mm } 35 at 0 ~ Se : t} ¥¥ BCR) ’ Ss fee? to y | cr ‘ a 7 

Mes j s dt 
; 7 ea ee age ¥ . Twi ~ % ne 
tiem BS api Azs+OUt, tase pes edge ©O4 Pepa LRU OY cult lag tks 


Off its: ang es, orc by increasing. the dhameter of the, bower tio. ie 
rus, s0 that ‘it ¢ipcumscribed the square plinth, on by combiga 
tions of these different at raigenent a, as well as by hol Towing 
out. toe angicsa, Pigs: 204, 206,  /1f the diameter. of the torus: 
excéeded that of the sae {t required support, furnished by 
a smal) <‘corbel or ornament... All these detail motives were in- 

_ttoduced » in the forms, of the base by medtaeval ar chitecturé, ae 
but may well be clothed in Renaissance forme, . A peculiat bs 
treatment of the: was es Of °c Juss, eonrcsponding: bo the: capi: 
vals. Some ens of forms sevidisgonslly in’ combination he - 
ers, eh se changes of déetion do not occur gradually but’ sud- 

genta Be Ge - great favorits in later: modiaey ed chi 

and: thus ereated a mop tye. that may often be used, and ts F 

suitable for Cagt metal, iron ate eee vand ree ee 

a es ~ Peds t 1 of the. Column. | ‘ 


cep 


‘Of the Gebers (that aouds be more peciestiy Sica. to, ae 
treatment of buildings of several stories; placing one order — 
above another, the great projéction of the lower en tabis hate 
eoncea led the, bases of the columns placed Ee it. Resale, 


ihe Windows | used = require =a a certain Te Nialibeak 


5 p By were ~ a ed eee yy 
“Wall hetween. |. 


| | _ CHAP. Il, COLUMNS. . BAL ; 
; the windows. required a certain height of. wall vetwoan them and 
the cornice; to make the base of the columnvisible, it coe 


ete. , waite: the: A inene Cano eteed. in advanael® 
upper story was fixed, that of the lower athe Saith: site 
“Ler orders | being dependent on it. This scale of the ag 


: eee Leben icon. rele 
is ‘from, 10". 18 ‘the aver tae nth Se or al 


oriae >. “Ateooueh the ¢ 
no. importance’ to. us, and | 
Corinthian and Composite o ) 
/OF bothumodillions and den ie 3h at 
tle aiter ‘all, we’ shall not be. arnaia te 
forms of the Composite. pedestal, 12 
Pedestals are. stadia ea aa ages of 


veut cea ddustvugt tones eapectabty tn hattwbrs |” ‘churches, ne.) 
bases of elustered columns and piérs should be treated: aq, thas 
sive babe~blocks, Which, with gradually increasing broadta, - & 
distributes: the pressure of the pier over tne foundation, The: 
ofisets $f the courses should be softened by any ‘transitional : 
forms, the lower course should: sometifies be formed asa bench 
for a\seat, Fig, 210; where a s6at is useful; Pt affords the a 
best. means cf giving the pedestal a broad hase. 
Gtiap: SR Herp s Pier, | 
The word Bier denotes so many different: things, - that. 4b are 
acareely possible to give an exact definition: it MITT. here ~ 
only be applied to those vertical supports, waten ere not. uct 
umns, both standing free ‘and engaged to walls, °° | Paes 
a1, Renaissance: anc Classica ‘Foreament of Piera. ae 
Piet: alWays ‘havs this? “tn ‘common with columns,ithat they are 
intended to support a load and transmit ita pressure to the. | 
foundarion; like ¢oluma, ithey require a footing, a base, . 
abacus and a capital. As: for colums, the capitals and bas eB y: 
form a, transition between the form. of theppier and those of . 
the. load and, foundation: but-as thevgection of thepier ig al 
most Invefiably: formed with reference. wo the architectural. 
tails: neareat it, the forma tion of: Ae shit and pephyels 
simplified. ~ * es 
. Phe classic orders were genara) ly eonwaniel with only ‘ees > 
standing or compound piers... The Grecian Doric atyle gave. wall, 
piers an abacus,) supported by a Doric half-recurved row. of. 
ves and finished: at hop by a sinall crowning moulding:. 
tium {hawksbill) was connected with the plier by a negk 
fow bands, oP exceptionally by at Lonicecyma,. support (OY: 
‘beaded astragal, (Fig. 311, asin the Temple of: Nemesia ab® 
nus. The bage consisted of = simple projecting plinth, 0 
reversed base-moulding. Slight: variations inc ‘the forms , “of 
theese capitais evidently occur in thre few renathing examp 
each individual. ease being designed. in: hatmony with: ihe ent 
building in which it is found; : i 
The pisr-caps of tne Tuscan order of. tae. fienatadance’ ‘masie : 
are partiy very simple as ih Vignola; Paratly- richer and, ore 
profiled that the corona predominates, Fig. £13. _ Roman: and & 
alssance masters prefited the Dorie plen-capitals. in very: ‘gim 
tla? Ways, but usually left the base entirely’ aimple,: onside : 
ing of a single offaet with or Without a traneition moulding. 
» Tae Grettan loniec order introduced characteristic forms: of); 
anta@ capitals in most important. remaining examples, & as the 
Erecthoium and Temple on the Illisug, also ta the Propyleum 
Temple /of Minerva at Priene and Temple. of Apollo at Miletus 
The. two. first, consist pf. & pend and neeking : 
ne er ted* anionte a EN aE Ot ian ke 


gs set OO TA 


4 es 
} 
a 
: 
i 
y 
€ 7 
y 
“ * 4 
rea J fe : i 4 
, Ta ST a 


Bo CHAP. BA. eens, pina Oo a ee 
if . inserted an Monio’ oyna, above this being a Benes an, with bead 
&§ ed eek eae, eis eis The RE CK EE was decorated by. Baga) 


ote: two last. are. ‘the’ go-cal led teuneny-onpitala®,.b : 
prove their form and restless ane ee One one must ve 8 
enthusiast for Grecian antiquity. i ; 
Grecian fonic. forms baséa_ ‘of: pier. ‘and ‘Rolin alike! 
Roman and Renaissance: Tonic ‘treat: capitals of Die 


Greek ‘idea, oP as eapitals. decorated. ‘by foliage. The 
of Roman anchitecture possess go little authority in det 
that a great number. of these heaped-up mouldings of | caps 
littlevalye to UB,” and we can more ‘elosely follow str Ren 
Roget (that book | the ot opin haa Pgiec Make eae: Region 


eee: being ese 


Boe 


vO Fars ¢ ’ n Ga! Wot ' son rob : is wee 
and’ ee ec 


Suit ye Pas 


CNY eer hy 
SIM er gree 
fe 045 f oe 
une 


pe ete al eptesen OREy: the: Dvaieat) of (arphiteutanal 16m 
868s 6s/meaning, | while detail form require: transformation : 

finer treatment, corresponding °| bea the Edge oe ot Rakes ei 

Pics other wbiecta: re | thy one 

see are sige Compound. Piers aiter “the, Clag ahcat Vie 

laureval: modes. of. forming groupe of Dili bone i pe 

an of an aprtmenta, and may pe. arranged. . in. a ae typi tals: mote 


a ee 


| of 


fist 


ie sa 


: v4 


WS gsi ¥ 


CHAP, 12. PIERS. B.AY 88, 
ives; 1, two cr more piers form a group o& elements of equal - 
HhG6ight; 2, they form a group of elements of unequal height, 
Fig. 217. ° The. following ground-motives practically result in 
both cases; a), two pliers stand besd@e each other; b), two are 
one behind the other: ¢c), two mke a right, acute or obtuse 
angle with each other; d), several piers form a group. Thess 
problems occur on facades : as Well as in interiors, in Ost ~and 
lintel, and in arched construction. 

If several piers are connected in a group of fixed nefght, 
Gach ons either requires ite separate eapital and bas@, and 
@h¢e piers may then be detached from the wall yaffording suffi. 
cient space’ for free developemnt. of the capitals and bases, a | 
‘common plinth and a common abacus may also be added to these: 
. OM, the gapitals and bases cohere and form a compound capital 
ard compound base in which reentrant of projecting angles. 
sometimes require transitional ornaments to fill the angles, 
80 that the group réally forms a whole and does not appear to 
bs merely an external combination. 


Transverse connections are not only ppoper, but in many ca- 
ECS are necessary.in.ccmpound piers at about: ‘ene third of one- @ 
half their height, itn ordersto pie boin together the dif e 
ferent courses Of gtonejyeach composed'of several: pieces: is 


is Sapectally true of brick piers, in whicha bond SbOn3 mugs i 
be Occasionally inserted. One. of the finest. examples: oi 3 ie 
veusa@cconnections is to be found at the angles of the gourt. ore 
the Cancellaria at Rome. If the piers of @ group aré of une- 
qual height, two cases become possible, the capitals and bases 
of the projecting portion 6xtend around the other, Fig. 218, a 
or the pler-caps and bases of the receding portion dis againat 
the projection a. .The projections of the cap and the project- 
fon of the pier must be so arranged that tnis abutting of the 
mouldings is possible, Fig.219. As the cap of the lowerpier 
must be included within the solid cf the projecting one, the 
Gap ‘Of the former may extend entirely across the pier ag a 
course of stones, breaking the projecting portion ag a band. 
But this band may remain smooth: or the lowér mouldings may -bé 
broken around the eentral pier, supporting a smooth projecting; 
band, against which the upper mould bags about; or the upper a 
mowld ings may extend through, only the “lower ones abutting ag". 
ainst the central pier; or the entire eap moulding may be bPo- 
‘ken around the central picr, Fig. 220. If eapitals are found 
at three diffement heights in a compound. pisr,. one should take 
care that the cap of the lower piér abuts againg the project-. 
ion of the highest,-Fig. 22), and the courses corresponding toe 
elon capitals, could. then oniy break the highest pisr as gincot 
bands: any other arrangement. would: be: somewhat. disturbing. 


a 


—, 


Te tities the yiew and hindering admission, o 


a only » BA. a “unit, 


 emmeuna piers: may. have ‘the. fautt: or occupying more 


Poon.) ne Boparate, Modules aay therefore be 


OE aran plate 
aterser’ Loar or. Ta aor 


arches. by. dees olpantag provect ond) to 
| piers will, not be less than if these. proje 
‘gular: the. ‘supports. of. ‘the ribs,’ - ~ 
teo Massive in pedals (age 


ae 


side arches and > 


springing points of: the supports. . The 
pe treated like a: “classic pilaster, 


tng-shafte. 
be arranged i oe about two axes, 


‘pair of equal 2 ee 


others” being 
ae eciumes “ine "ake o be. sag 
piers heretofore cite os 


ro the impost block is not compos 
*  epsecting each other. The reduction of th 
/. plier to. its minimum depends on 1 tio: 
 gtone, neglecting the gtrength of ; te) 
the pier and the permissible crushing oat 
mode of executing a refined and comple pie 
= )0|lCOWaS NOt understood, the: ribs and arches were 
bo Paved. from 6ach other above the ‘impost cap me) 


- gmallest possible space on their support.  fhree cases. 
became possibl @& the extreme outer points of th 


“CHAP. 13. PIERS. Bee ec) SE: RAL 20. 
pier. We ean thengpake ‘the. ‘proj ect Long” rectangular under the’ 
ind pengath the ribs, thereby obtaining an. 
arrangement, : caklieg vin: form to_ the. Transition gtyke, the “more 
readily if we make “the. ‘erowns of the arenes of equal or eae 
imately equal» height, which requires di fretent. heights f B 

tan ular pler sho 


supporting. ‘the riba are not. in ‘any way to. b 
clagsicgeolumns, their p&pportions being ent! 


ip 


ney: are an -Pemai 


There only 


the pier to cainimim, to. ‘oceupy “the lea 


If the pler. ‘or % 


mn, if ite capital be. 


to. afford: al proper 's 
) sae bot 


symmetry exaist 


group of round epiuine, Pid: 224, 


umn, 


fons, but are rather cieula wall -1 Cs. 


Tibs to be gepatated above | 


first became known in the best Gothic period ho > 
ehes to intersect at their ‘lower ends, 60 as to require 


es were. equidistant from the axis. of the pier, or th e are 
or else. the ribs, projected more than the other. ‘members w.2, 

‘The simplest arrangement for poth appearance and executid 
‘2 that where the ribs and arches unite above th _impost 0 
form a paiygonel: fupong -pieebo ge Sayers! “Which show: t 


= i a a. — 
—— aan . > 
a aren a _* “i = 
* B a Lr \ P oe * ah 
i. Pied | . 4 ‘ a a) 
iy ma u f \~n A Pe a5 | i 
| rg » } 
‘je nie y Leah 
yi eae) Oe Ak 
| L, eee 
a M " ah 
Aw 
- ¥ 
ws 
rv 
{ 
’ 
\ 
t 
4 
i 
oe 
* 
Nei 
. 
§ 
h 
y 
™ 
Ne f 
4 
' 
" 
: 4 
Tai 
P Mf i 
Leet - i 4 
i 
a 
i 
4 é 4 i 
- , 7 7 _ 


ae 


to the square of their. height and ‘in direct ee leo to a 
width: the spans— of the intercolumniations 


moulded sunk panels could ‘be. symmetrically arranged: about the 


of the ribs and side arches as small as ‘possible, and to. ‘allow 
Sits Media abet 


28 possitle, to anne ‘the taphort th beolute mt Py a 
ro | Re Pais ome 


ie ieee, ‘ | jai g RE ee Ee RE OS 

e CHAP, | 12. PIERS, ee hae eee OR hee Gl. te 
ion b reduced to its minimum. fs the otha, are smaller than. th 
the arches, the polygon has alternately equal sides ‘gan and as: 
éach stone above the impost. is to be wrought from a ‘rough Blt? 
block of square plan, to save material, “dt is best to keep. he 


number of courses between the. impost and the lower, voussoirg © 


the ribs to proje t 80 far from the a 
their. sections ma’ Sout a ee 
of the Pough | block, Fig. 227; 
then be square, 


aS 


they shoul ares : 


8 in Pig. 228; but. te 
Sy Ssharee the. satis 


A 


Bic ais 


| ax 
The Reina: stienees: of Satna 


then-depend ‘on thé 
the resast. 


sectional area, of the ee ne ee eptenly, on 


seh et bas ot was. REGENT | or ‘decorated ‘by paluted. “band - ike pat. 
térns, but in Roman buildings it was generally ornamented ‘by 
sunken panels, or band-like sculptures, Fig. 231, th 
common] y encloged by. cymas and beaced sealed 4 die 
edge of the architrave ‘appeared too broad, its ¢ 
rated by a moulded or ornamented band, and ie s 
in two halves, Fig. 232.. When the architrave. Bin fs of é 
two beams placed side by. side, une: under edge of each could be} 
decorated by simple sunken ‘or. ornamental panels, OF ; these — ore 


central joint, OS eg So Cae. od 


i ae are g f a prea ee NE by hh 


saglh 


Tk yt 


z ay . 


CHAP. 13. ENTABLATURES. ys dee ce hy ee EAL 92. 
Wooden beams have been treated fully in considering the con- 
struction of ceilings, and it only remains to briefly. ment ion 
trussed beams or girders, which play an important part in 
bridgé construction; whether of wood or iron, lattice, gugpen- 
sion, or supported by piers, the supporting lower and upper 
members are connected by stiffening members and are go. fasten- 
ed together, that the girder becomes an inflexible whole, like 
a roof truss. Everything said of visible wooden and iron. roof. 
construction is also applicable’ to the construction of ae: 
especially the general law, that in engineering conseruction 
on a large scale, the esthetic solution of the’ problem is to. 
be sought in the platnest and clearest eOnstruction, and not. 
in a paltry treatment of details. — The recognition Of: the ext- 
ernal appearance of a ‘perfected construction aS ‘péeing egtheti-— 
cally valuable, is. more. important than any attempt tooconceal 
the construction. by covering the structural forme ‘by decora-- 
tions in thin metals OP “boards. i065 Pua Gene RhASaS, 
| 2. -Entablatures of the Cidaste: ‘Orders. ae 
Classic architects ‘based the proportions Of the intercolum- 
niations and their heights on the lowér. diameter of the: eolung — 
and fixed certain normal proportions, that. were more or less 
binding. Such normal ratios can evidently possess, but 2a limit — 
@d value, for the elear. distance between the upper ®nds of the 
columns, or. tae actual span of the architraye, chiefly depends — 
on the resistance of its material to transverse: Strain: sepe 
Ly ‘fractured marble required the ‘edd! mn to be closely. get, 
bough stone ‘permitting them to be widely spaced. Since ‘piasnee 
columns had norma] ‘proportions of. height © Doric orden.o 7. 
could have proportionally wide intercolumniations | with: low,” : 
but must have. narrow ones with. very high. columns; for if the 
extreme limit of span of a stone beam were fixed at about 2005 
ft., the height. of the order. would. depend. on this span only 
within certain limits, and the chatacter of: the entire ‘order 
might change without. changing» the actual span Ree ay the archttray. ; 
The [onic and. Corinthian orders, a as well as. ‘those having ped. 
@atals, always. appear to. have proportionally narrow intercolite” 
niations, their height’ being ils os in peer ae ora) doa ot Tower | 
diameter the column. <2 OU eee y eee 
Piers and Genings: of Cirder Bridges. eh ee 
Piers of covips girder bridges and of. similar structures are 
usually strong wooden trestles, “or masses or masonry, or. are |) 
more rarely iron structures, that serve as. the supports. ot the. 
bridge girders. According to ‘their arrangement, they are eith— 
6r abutment of intermediate piers; tney consist of a base, the 
bady of the pier, and the cap or. ‘coping for receiving the ees 
ant age eatin a8 erik serve for tags of had ae across nie 


A 


\sigided ss. a 0 Reiter hie 
Fi OM eg 
* : ruse: mit 


ie ee ‘CHAP, - 13, ENTABLATURES, | Bee BA Cia ie 
. ePg or those of viaaduete or aqueducts. oe ps | 
The base always serves as a firm and broad foundation for 
the entire structure, and bridges over rivers or arms of the. 
sea must be go constructed with: reference to the highest and 
lowest water: levels, as well as the flow of the tides; it ser-— 
ves as a Wave and ice-breaker, and haa its peculiar bitin. acts . 
ted to the purpose, and may be provided. with a coping, or may. 
be prepared to receive the body of the pier by any guitable ~ 
transitional form, the entire pier being diminished upwards, — 
partly to save material, partly to prevent obstrution to the 
passage of the Water, ‘ead in many cases to avoid loading the 
foundation too: heavilyy it also always looks better than if it. 
were. not diminished. The transition from the base to the body - 
of the pler with its. projections at. sides. and ends permits the 
most varied changes of section, tnat exert e- pleasing | influenc 
On the form of the pisr. Médtiaeval architects well Pie? 
how to. effectively treat these ‘projections, which serve to. . 
break the force of the water, sometimes building chapels on : 
them, sometimes furhishing them with platforms or belecnten” 
accessible by steps, for giving aid to ‘sailors oN BE OVER RES 
logs from striking the pier. - gee 
The base of the. bridge - pier and ta - phol éeatag! ends. were ue 
construgted with reference only to a pleasing effect, but to ~ 
break the waves, to admit ‘of the tse of. the plainest,. et ae 
rock- faced ashlar, and the strongest, mode of anchoring. the 
stones together by’ iron cramps; when such Bier needs were. ‘pro- 
tected by iron-work, ‘they have a fine effset. eons ee 
The body of the pier is often. wanting, the girder being: pla-. 
ced directly on the base, which is then. crowned by battlements — 
or a tower, a pedéstal supporting a statue, As group. ‘Of: statues 
a through- pier which serves to conceal the junction. Or two. | 
bridgé-girders; the body of the pier sometimes rises. “from tts 
base, leaving a. bold Offset @8 an. abutment foe the struts a Be 
wooden abutment bridge, Fig. 237. | as 
The coping beneath the bridge girder. serves. as ‘a Plonk: for. cas 
its support and as 2 cap for. the pier. Ig should have a Btrog 
projection where it. receives the girder, for the first; for. 
the latter, it must have a bold cornice, Fig. 238, profiled ane 
various ways, stu esueeal to Ae, character end: arrangement of. 
the bridge. nage 
The: corbellings at the top of the pier, enslegpeuseop ious 
tower-like additions, towers, and other structural motives. LOR 
developing ‘the afchitecture should be used. when possible, wate 
--order: to. make a truly architectural work of the. eeeke and 
most: economical pc ha ob belle ee ea “ 


3 ‘i y 1 t 
of Sr, 


¥ 


PP ae ck 


iO es 


' the supports of the arch are low, as in low halls or. bridges; 


~ elliptical arch of. low rise is fully justified. when Rip Batts 


is. 1-3 its apan, or 1-8 if its cruvature be as 


; ee 2 é f : “ ne 


| ae 
™~ 


CHAPS 93. ~ ENTABLATURES. ge EON. B.A, 94. - 

6r and more pleasing architectural treatment with. known. archi-— 
tectural motives, than is usually accorded to them They are 
usually only terminating masses of ma,3 On ry, to resist the pres. 44 
suré of the Garth, such as retaining walls, their external repute 
pSarance bsing pkinetoeliy dspendent on the kind of masonry. . 
A special emphasis should be laid on a ‘trangigion between the | 
abutment and the bridge? girder, because the unpleasing: gunet nes 
ion of the girder and pier is general ly. neglected. ‘Corbelling — 


is a valuable egthetic expediésnt,. and the hard intersections 


of horizontal and vertical lines at the end of the bridge ik 


should be broken by flights of steps, Pig. 240, pendentive eo 


vaults in the angles with the side walls, Fig. 241. angle tow- 
6rs,. aedign Fete geod and gtmilar Bs gad This” hardness 
wilt of 


out. ‘Pegard ‘Ro. the. purpose ‘for ari aie they are employed; ane! ef 
fect of the arch will be. the more powerful, the: greater its 
Pegi «ik and: thas smaller the pore kh ot its ‘abutment, Bia. Ai 
ligntty. loaded ane oetos ig, tt be. $00. ‘thick, “Pige. 244, 245, 
The form of. bhe arch has to us ‘something ‘peculiarly character 
istic through associated ideas; segmental and elliptigal arche 
es of low rise geém to be depressed, Fig. 246, cand this- charca- | 
ter of depression corresponds ~ fully to the arrangement, owners — 


it {fs more or less. opposed to. use ‘for. Poomg. of considerable 
height and RO: spans on high supports; the depressed aPch, wh t 
her sé@gmental] or elliptical, only looks well. as a discharging — 


areh, when the arch merely serves its. ‘purpose without: raising — 


the question of its pleasing appearance, Fig. 247. Its” pence 
ity is inersasged and its appearance | becomes more. pleaging, at 
its depth be increased towards the abutments, ‘Pig. 248. The 


span between abutments, which serve as corbels, ‘Fig. 249. ‘The 
abutments may then be replaced by supports ‘or corbels— of aif- 
ferent forms, which likewise support. the ‘elliptical arch, Fig 
250. The broken segmatal arch may often be used, Fig. 261, ‘bu 
it igs strictly only a pointed arch; the. broken oval arch ma; 
have a very elegant effect at other. times, aa” it. ‘gurpasses 
mental and elliptical arches in pleasing effect, if its Pig! 
egular as po 


The semicircular arch | anes ap teart pi taetng if ite jower. 


— 


» 4a) advantages in the construction of forms of tracery, while | 
others were but trifles. 


CHAP. te ARCHES ABOVE PIERS AND. cobs, re 9b. as 
ends are not conesaled by a projecting impost Mopate kei ey: 
suits anY preportion between its span and the height 9 ts 
supports; it may spring directly froma footing, piers eapaihs 
ing omitted, or it may be placed on very high supports, with. 
out producing a disturbing effect, ‘though a pointed arch is. 
more pleasing in the ease; it may. be strongly stilted DS ne 
sary, sO that it is usually beoken: Bult eds to. reall, cages” ‘than 
any otner form of arch. | 

The pointed arch is least. adaptec to the. case, “when t he ver 
tical direction is to be especially accented. “Various: ‘stru 
ural methods for determining the radius of the. pointed arch 
were known in the Middle Ages. 1, The radius ts 2-3, 3-4, 4. 
5, or n-(n £1) times the span, Fig. 262. 2, The radius, 13° a 
hypothenuse of a triangle, ads sidés are to each ebher. as 
Dor Ve ee ore orb ‘n. 3, The centres of the arch are. : 
found b¥Dproj ect ing the ee. of. the polygon on a diagonal, s/ 
Fig. 253! 4, The centres are found. on a diagonal | of the poly- 
gon, the. pointed arch passing through two or three angles. Of: 
this polygon, Fig. 254. All these methods have the sole PULD =. | 
ose of aiding the. enlargement of the pointed atch to full. size 
and ohtaining exact work in stone cutting; BOms. possesed spec- 


es TAY ‘would ‘be well practically to: {txae 
. the centres of. the parts of the arch, pointed or oval, by some) 
definite rules, to lessen the labor of drawiag them: full size, — 
‘Compare constructions of Fig. 254 a. All kinds of combined © — 
arch forms , Fig. 255, like those preferred in mediaeval and _ 
‘Mohammedan arpehitecture, in Netnerlandish Renaissance, and es | 
pecially those “eompos ed of. concave and . CONVEX. euryes, hay oO} 
etructural but. only a. ‘decorative value, and shou | the 
be sxcluded from’ gtructural designs when possible, being 
to the domain of decoration, where they ane Juet iret: 
smal} doorg or windows, eellar openiags, nar ning: 
yg covered pe a Bee stone, also mall canopies: m 


Sy be atwietured; when used. on a args seale, “and 
avoided On that ‘account. ae. er ‘ 


abate s zo. increase. ete. stability eden: a eveatedy ie 
the pointed. arch requires. this increase towards. its crown 
256, To a knowledge of this fact, we owe the feeling of repos. 
arising from an assurance of a correct m de of ecnstructi n, he 
in seeing one of these two ¢ases; such repose would ‘scarce 

be felt by ons ignorant of this, ‘gince the. associations Of the 
ideas here considered would aes be Prentine: to him. A: arch 


3 . oe 


' serted slab; the skew- back: itself may, be. Bing ag 3 a corbel in 
Bon bridges, Pig. 200. ‘ 


“ Wass ol PTO > ee ) See vy LP Ted 
[*#: Gee RAT pee MEL 4 # PRED PEL , 
o v a 2 sd ben , f, : 


CHAP, 14, ARCHES ABOVE PIERS. AND COLS. EAL or. 
of low rise can support only a proportionally light load, aes 
a pointed arch can support a heavy one; nence, on an asavelast 
tion of ideas is based the visible need for a flat arch to ap- 
pear lightly loaded, and a pointed oné heavilyyloaded atitne 
céntre. When attention is not gic to. bese: sonaiderstione | 
pleasing effects are produced. _ ee 
Tt is generally true of forms of section of arenes, ag sta-— 
ted for side-arches, that the profile of the. aPchivolt may 
change its. character, Pig. 267; l, according to the ‘depth ‘of 
the arch; , By according to tne projection. of the arch ffom the — 
face of the wall; ‘3, according to the desired inclination of oe 
the spalyed surface for affording admission to Lignt and touch 
ing the. extreme projections of the anoe tte eae oe rds 
’ 2 Arched Bridges. — e LpuGh eRe Pa 
Arched stone bridges require the impos t plock to be te can 
clearly prominent by a horizontal Anetaton and a clear Treats 
ment of its abutment. ; oa 
The impost’ of the areh will fs rte ‘lea pe. the: Routed: of ‘the. 
pier, or if the pier be wanting and “it. eoincides with the base 
the coping itself forms the impost; the arch otherwise springs — 
driectly from the foundation of the bridge, making an- impost ; 
cornice unnecessary; For reasons of stability, the lower par: 
of the arch. should be built weph norigontal courses” Ba 


elliptical arch: "ene. about: one- third that of a pointed ‘atoh:| ce 
that is, a wall -inase gradually. wtdens. upwards and is formed ‘by 

corbel ling out the ‘separate coursés of stone, and the arch pr 
prasaes. against Aoi as badass this Gacag = Pais. abutment mass_ sho 


and may be onda agpecially prominent, “ Pég. a i 
time, the principle of economy will Loverat lar 
characterize the. abutment, tt must be draaes tera eee 
arch is built of rock-faced ashlar, or that it be marked by oe 
bordering members, ‘coats of arms, emblems and other decorat ive | 
expedients, if the:arches are dressed smooth in city bridges. — 
Tae segmental arch always requires 4 skew-back normal to _ 
curve, and has a bad effect if ‘it abuts directly” ainst thé ae 
coping of a support, Wig. 259: if ‘the. areh- och not bordered by ae 
mouldédia memyers, it does. not appear more ugly han if those ae 
borders are composed of horizontal headers, » or abut. against iene 
each shee est. unless the intersection is es pecially supported ey 
a corbel. The first radial joint of tas segmental | afch separ 
ates it from the skew-back, wrought. from a single block eh Ba ar 
horizontal courses, and may be marked by a ‘boldly profil : 


CHAP.. 14. ARCHES ABOVE PIERS AND COLS. ELA. 98. 
If the separates bridge arches spring from separate skew 
backs, oF the piers are of unequal width, a small arch may be 
inserted between tne ends of the main arches to save material: 
this occurs in the Ponte de Quattro Capi, Rome; the end: piers — 
may also be broken by. gateways, ar outlet openings may be le 
left above the abutments to carroy off water from bridge way. 

If girders of wood or iron in form of arches be combined , 
with piers of masonry, the piers should have proper abutments ae 
for the girders, and these snould generally. be skew-backs,— co- x 
inctding with the radius of the arch at the joint. : | 

3. Covered Bridges, or with Buildings. | . 

If the bridge is-eovered by a roof, the structural ideas” ren! 
sult from the arrangement of its supports, - and of tne bridge — 
pierg on which it rests: wo not load tnevridge too heavily, — 
the construction ef the roof should be as light as possible, 
and the spans between the supports a3 great as possible; these 
rules disappear at the piers themselves, where a grouped - ars 
rangement of columns is desirable. From tnis idea res ults. Nene, 
argangement of pavilions, twoers and portals on the piers of 
the bridge, and open halls over the bridge way, such arrange- 
ments being carried out in the mos baried ways in the kts Oke Ss 
isthe OnAny ME ae Me, eo me us co oe Ro xe 

| Chapter LS.  Boeeeosies and Flying. But tresses. ; 

Buttresses are Bi eher inereased thicknesses Oi ‘walls to pre- _ 
vent their yielding, or to resist the thrust of vaults; their as 

nature is identical in both cases, as a Wall can only yield = 
sidewise to a force acting in that direction, at an angle wita 
tne wall; it is immaterial whether this force. is” ‘produced bya. 
vault. or not. The buttress Fig. 261 must always” be arranged in * 
the same direction ag. the force, whether perpendicular. or. a 
lique to the wall; if two or more forces act on the wall, S. 
many buttresses must be arranged, one opposed to each toree,, c. 
or, ag the forcesmay be combined in a single resultant, a ‘gin | 
gle buttress may ORRORS this resultant aw ene force acts 


ag an earth pressure, or it may act at one or more wolatEr. 40" 4 
would tend to slide tne entire wall sidewise. in tne first esp 2 
in the second, to owerthrow the wall or bend it. i 9 

If two or more forces act against a wall, the cabnetpaeeian a 
of a buttress simply consists in connect ing the points of aun 
application of tne forces by a rigid body, then applying to §¢ 
tHis body a force having the same line of action and magnitude | 
ag the resultant of all thé forces it equilibrates. : ie 

The force F, Fig. 262, suffie&ént to move the wall sidewise, 
is proportional to the. Wetehe Pp of the wa hl, i. 6, to the Eidos ct 


sure 


ts 


j 


CHAP. 15. BUTTRESSES. | cz, 99. 
‘sure it exergs on its foundation, and to the coefiicient pends 
friction f of the materials of the wall and foundatica on Sikch 
other; thus, F -- PX f, P =- F-r f, f -- F-+ P; the ates and — 
form of the bearing surface not being considered, The ore 
firm, solid and heavy the masonry, and the Peugher the bearing 
surface, the less danger of sliding of the wall, — | a 
As for overthrow of the wall by the force k, ‘this force ts 
proportional to the weight g acting at the centre of gravity oe 
of thé wall, to the distance x of the hori zontal projection Olsen 
the centre of gravity = Renee point of rotation C, and. invers 


ely proportional to thepserpendicular a let fall from the point — 


of rotation C to the line of action of the force kj or, expres 
sed in a formula, k -- g x <+.a. This ghows that” tire Wal lie yh 
will be the more stable, the greater its weight, its. thicknesg 


and the lower the point of applieation ‘of the. force Ky OT Rake a 


greater the angle of inclination of the force, and k he no 


injurious effect when C is a maximum, the “weight and thiekndest 


oi the wall being infinity, or tne point of ere lioe es setae t 
cides with the potnt of rotation. ee x be 


The weight C and distance a being cone bant. z may be ineress 
ed, Pig. 264, and theentire mass of the wall may be 80 arranged — 
that 1¥s ‘contre of prev ity falls as near tig inner ‘pide as pos 
ing. The Wall Decomes nore ‘stable by battering ‘it, “or ee. 


ed,. but that would only occle “if the well is eorbelledout SO. 
much on the inside that its mass.is bisected by vePtical A. 
A buttress ts, only a wall-mass, safe by its conditions of 


stability; its effectiveness thus increasing with; tite pon 


jectiom at its base; 2, its load or the use of. heavy bailding 
stone Sd increase in height: 35. DF eorbelling it. out on the © 
inside. The point of application of the. force k and ‘its line 
of action are almost always given; if the buttress is arrang a 
to resist the thrust of a vault, the point of: application of 
this force k is found at the intersection of the tangent. Of: 


the central line of pressure with a vertical through tae cen- .: 


ees Of gravity, oFig. 266; the tangent. K is the line of pressure — 
self at this point. The weight C of the wall. and buttress ae 
combines where with the thrust, forming a resultant, which 
must. lie wholly within the buttress. — Tous oe the stability 
of the buttress and wall is to be ‘increased with economy of ma 
terial: 1, the point of application must be kept low; 2, the  .— 
line of action of- the force must be steeply tnelined; ey ARS — 
phe Phe of the base of the buttress is to be gent T. eee 
ne first. condition is satisfied by naving the springing ; 
8 low as possible: $e second gived™the buttress as 
weight aS possible si <hpez 2” 


oe i ; Rae ve i 


“CHAP. . 15. _ BUPTRESSES.. CR gee ee 100, 
apes weight as possible and corbels the conatruction’ out tou! 
wards the interior, to incline the axis of the masonry inward, 
drawn: through the centre of gravity; the third is ‘satisfied by 
the projection of a part of the buttress on the interior, vend 
by a reduction of its mass, if permitted by the line of pres-— 
sure, Fig. 267. Openings are therefore admissible at the base, 
of the buttress, ag well as above the line of pressure. From 
what has been said, the projection of the buttress ghould be 
greater than its widta, its stability inereaging more with 1 
eréased projection, a heavier load, and corbelling out On She 

inner side, than by increased width. AIS NEM ae 

The esthetic ground.- ideas for the formation of puttreases 
are as follows: the ‘omgtress requires Be considerable -proje 
ion at its base: as a wall-pilaster, regarded ag an additi 
at right angles to the wall. ‘for. strengthening it, ‘the thic 
ness of the buttress must. at least equal that or. the Wall, 
iv wilh Seow too: weak. — jOpentaga for doorways are permiss' 


ken around ee “The. Ofisets in breadta or’ ‘thickness Bhi 
capped bY PES Oe inclined planes, large or small, acco: 
the arrangement ‘Of: ‘the whole, and which may be covered b} i 
elined or gabled. stones to shed rain Water, ‘Fig. 267. ROE 
ae ting ieakoseniie be sree, 18 a 


sage around ‘the: Sullding with openings through’ ‘the but 
Or broken around them, Pig. 268... : 

The séparate offsets of the. buttresa may be ‘poated is 
ending masses with light. decorative ornaments. _ The leading 
geae) for the SUE er ond of ‘the buttress are as follows: 1% 


nected. with. the sate cornice, 4 
upper or lower members: being broken, around ‘the! puttres g. 
269; or it interrupts the main cornice, which abuts. against 
either side of the buttress, ‘Fig. 269. In the last case, it 
may be terminated by heavy masses, | for which two ground- per 
are applicable. This load heel eonsists Of a ‘figure, page. 


fae. ops pyramida) form: the motive ‘of groups of figures” ta pre 
erably that of the Renaissance, that of a ‘pyramidal mass © 
stone being Gothic; instead of the last, obelisks are employed 
in the late Renaissance, after the precedent of the Tont 66, 
feces: ea ae See or SURES; AE ON See ae 


hy ! ; hy 
». 3 a | 
‘ " Neg 
: 
' 
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r 
. bg 


; 
3 
| 
‘ ~ 
: 
i 
‘ 
, A 
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<, 4 / 
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CHAR, 1b. BUTTRESSES. =” pat 101. 
The most effective means for. loading the upper part Of the, 
buttrées always consists in eorbelling out the main cornice. ac 


‘bove arches, which throw on the buttress the entire weight ae 


the mass between two buttresses, Fig. 270; a still heavier io 
loading is provided by a kind of attic story erected above the 
main cornice and constructed of simple arches spanning the ce 
space between two ‘buttresses, Pig. 27.15. Tas archés might be. 


utilized as openings for the admis gion of light. bo the attic 
Of the building, also being windows. in. a small eorridor or. rae 


smal} ehambera in the roof. The Gothie indeed introduced a 
ble dormers for. ‘thia purpose baie toading: the buttresses: on cs 


similar principle. _ fae Ne ee, 


Uaual arrangements are the following, Fig. 274: the. buttress is 


wants’ ataircase. The group may combine in a mass at their ba > 


_ INembers pecultar arrangements of piers” aPe obtained, as in the — 


deep recesses orp above a row of internal chapels, ee 


vaulted! roel 


like those solved in the Middle Ages, we. cannot dispense with - 


It the duttresses are arranged within ‘@ building, ib may hap 
pén that they require to appear externally as_ jow: buttresses — 
of moderate. projection, Fig. 272; these may terminate at top in 
any suitable manner witnout the necessity of vertically divid-_ . 
ing the upper wall of a building of séveral stories; or they 
may. perhaps require @ very strong projection, according’ to the 
artangemént of the vault, so that by vaulting over the ‘spaces 
between but tresses, external: galleries may be formed above =. 


Ags the breadth of the buttress is diminished | es ee ape 
there» also be. 
only be small, on th 3 
tress, Fig. ‘7a: Paiae obfeete: are not pepe He bulge tugs Se 
the U.5., though, the. base courses of the putlding are Ge 
ly broken. around the. ‘buttresses, but. not Pibcrte cece 

Groups of buttresses are always’ required at the anglea of 

sons and buildings, and for towers, and are. sometimes — 
employed. in connection with angle towers of staricaseg.. The 


eet. back from. the angie at a; directly at the angle as at be 
or diagonally ate; the corresponding arrangements ofa stair 
case tower would pe asvat a’, b’ and ec’, this tower being one 
of the most appropriate expendienta for’ strengthening. the an- 
gle, as well as frequently Playing. an important part. as @ B6r- 


g@6s and separate above this, Pig. 277; by the use of diagonal — 


treatment of buttresses in the. Cothic iid memoria) columns 
and similar forms ¢f piers. ne 

But tresses aré not a monopoly of Gothic, or galted to. that © 
alone, nor must they always be treated with Gothic forms; they., 
are a general result of vaulted construction, and in. problems ie 


the buttress. But if we wish to. wee to it a » Renaissance torn 


7 * 


: Cae CHAP, “1b “BUTTRESSES. Eat re een ace tas 102 , 
entirely neglecting the. @xistence of. the ‘dothte Jee we a 
should to a certain extent return to the forms devised by the 
Middle Ages; the generally accepted eprt of mediaeval) archites 
ture igs this, that it created forms, which cannot be replaced 
by any better onea. To exclude. these on principle: would be to. 
progress backward. Conversely, we must never feel constrained 
to retain the detal forms of Gothia, uged for ‘buttresses and | 
rly Shebit rer caeen, because no -@thers were) used. ‘We should a 
void the uge of buttresses as purely decorative, which also. 

pave Pe, Pin Gothic, when nothing ig to be resisted, | but must 

certainly not. fall into the opposite error. da ‘Renaissance, of 
greatly. enlarging the volutes of modi} lions intended for. a ee 
small scale, and of employing them aa meaningless forms for | 

buttresses, as general form-s ymbols- son the: Andteatton of a. 
horizontal thrust. eter) ) y : 

Flying buttresses are arches, which transmit the ‘thrusts: OP 
vaults to the mass of a. buttress, not by a heavy and Antlexiay 
buttress pier, but by an arch, itself exerting a thrust. phe 
become neéceasary in all basilican degigna of several aisles, oe 
and may also be used. when buttresses are entirely omitted, | but 
fixed points exist, like. rocks, massive walla, eto ese 
the thrust. of. a vault may be” trangmi tted. -fhey lose th 
function as arehes | exerting thrusts if ‘free-standing piers, or 
the angle masses of towers, are connected with the principal 
mass Of a bufiding by oblique. errata ie by horizontal bridges 

Which they support. | ‘ ‘ 

The following arrangements. are posstaies 

, a Phree or four-sisled basilican gtructures, eee 

1. But one buttresg. ts. required. — By ‘Two separate put tress- 
8g are necegsary,. ‘Pig. 278. 3y To inerease the Pegistance, two. 

flying buttresses are used, “eonnected ‘together, Fig. 279. 4) 
But one flying ET ee is necessary, though this mast SY 
heavily loaded. rg: a ee 

ey oP iwe:or six-aisled bast bican: structures. ee 

1. Side-aisles in pairs of different heights. Two flying 
buttresses are then arranged above each. side aisle, as in the 

Cathedral of Beauvais, Fig. 280, or a single flying buttress» 
spana the outer aisle, a second and larger ‘one being thrown 
over both side aisles to the centre aisle, as in the Cathedral | a 
of Notre Dame at Patis, Fig. 28]. 2, Side aiales of equal pee 
height, when the inner aisle requires THO, and the ‘outer aisle. 
one flying bubtresa, Fig. 282. « . 

The buttréss-mass, agains which the. flying buttresses abut, 
must satisfy the conditions previously gfven,: but it ts partie. | 
eularly necessary to locate its centra of gravity nearest The es 
inner side by corbelling out the Masses. | 3 patos 


| - CHAP. 16. BUTTRESSES, “ae : | Re As 103. 
Flying buttresses are to be regarded as arches, and are fig ee 
be treated accordingly; they will be more stable if in the f L. 
form Of half a pointed arch, than if quadrants; with very is 
eentre aisles, like those of larger Cothic cathedrals, they 
ugad not only resist the thrust of the vaults, but also hinder 
tae vytbrations of the centre aisle caused by violent gtorms. Pee 
In such great structures, it may happen that the. total aes of 
the buttresses and the. flying buttresses presents so. large re 
surface to the action of the wind, that. they require to be. ‘eon 
nected. by transverse arches. Ets such a case. occurs, the puila 
ing ttgelf would be concealed aa co formal scaffolding of but- 
tresses and archés. Lee Se 
If %he wall-mass of the buttress” is. te ne: decorated, ons | 
must distinguish between those points, which may be madé— ligt | 
ter by perforations or openings, without injury to their ahrie 
tural meaning, and > those, which may be. merely. decorated ae of 
nichés, containing figures, eanopics, inlaid. panels, ‘ete. too 
utilize the upper edges of the flying buttress as channels for 
rain water, as in Gothic, will seldom be Fopea leds ‘not being i 
& Very practical. procedure, aes aa ree 
A buttress can fulfil its purpos e or serengineatng Seis 1 
only when the masonry is. well bonded begetaer; hence it coul 
scarcely be constructed of Cyclopean masonry | Or: poulders. A » 
good bond. ean only be had with rubble of quarried atone, agh- x 
lar masonry or brick masonry; ponding of ashlar masonry. would be 
be strongest if blocks cut with reentrant angles were used, 
Fig-283 a. For a wall about 3 it. thick, an ashlar about 2 vee 
long and | ft.. wide, a buttress projecting RTA go and of. equal oe 
width, would be well bonded as show in Fig. 283 b. If ‘buttras 
es aré in brick masonry, all offsets aint neh Ene: upwards. must) 
diminish by courses. é s ee as Nee 
Chapter 16. Popeninke: in ores ee ee - 
Openings in walls are I, in walls of masonry; EI, in these” 
of wood or iron. Their purpose is either the Admission ‘ae 
light, when they are windows, or for passage, when they are a 
doors and gateways. To the latter may be. added portals Of at 
nels, gateway bridges, openings for passage of water, Obese so. 
The leading idea for the treatment of openings in walls is ba- 
sed on the construction of the wall, a portion of Which is re- 
moved by the opening, — interrupting the pond tin. ‘one place; thes 
adjustment of the bond depends first on the clear width of the 
opening. The treatment of the opening is. also arranged. ‘to-ac-. 
cord with the thickness of the wall, and the quantity of ‘light 
to be admitted to the room, or for doora, to the desired ease 
of PAE SABO... oes En pa inens. of sh dics a in walls tg further ae 


ie 


CHAP, 18. OPENINGS IN WALLS. eo Be BOS 
dependent on the mode of closing doors and wiadows, also. on 
the form of raised members and borders. 
| dd. Openings in Walls of Masonry. | 
“We will first examine a few problems commonly ocoursing in 
openings in rol beiore pein eta Cae ectagey eur doors ‘and. 
Windows. = | 2 ae | | 

Bro General. 
l. Spans of bose ings ‘tn Walls and ‘thats, Bond. 

The simplest mode. of covering narrow openings ‘a masonry 
walls will be by a single ashlar; this may be cut out in wane 
ious Ways, Fig. 284; but it would. thereby be weakened, and frae 
ture at its. centre. ig to de. feared. Fracture of a simple aah- 
lar will less” readily occur, if wrought from a very hard mater 
ial, or if raised at its centre, as ‘in. Fig. 284, 5; a hollowed - are 
out stone will not be so easily broken if it be formed as &@ ae 
keystone, as Pig. 285, or if a. joint be arranged Retoeisae ae 
where it threatens to break. . Whether hollowed- out or not, a 
gtone may be protected. against fracture by its load being’ ae 
“erwigse supported, in the simplest way by two. blocks, Fig. 285; 

This may be most perfectly accomplished by three pale Nyse o 
act ing as an.arch, Fig. 286. The same end may often be attain 
ed vy allowing a keystone ‘to extend through‘two courses, Fig. 
286. Or three vougsoirs may be eo joined that their lower gum 
faces. form a plane. ‘These and other modes of covering naProw — 
openings are especially. employed in cellar windows; the arched 
form of the covering stones may usually be chosen at pleasure, 
permitting the use of the most diverse forms, Fig. 287, it be 
ing scarcely necessary to consider. more than the decorative 
eifect of the arrangement. a A Sar 

As for the bond of these simpler eonetructions of openings 
in Walls, the following motives: would result. fron previously 
treated ground -laws for bonds, it being assumed that the. et 
struction of the. covering and jambs is to. be in cut stone, 
1. In masonry of boulders and rubble, the stones may have ir- 
regular and inclined end-jointa, these kinds. of masonry being 
better guited for random joints than vertical ones. , Fig. 288, 
re ome polygonal | and penal masonry, one mus t seck Be a 


3 
4 «ing *, 


arrange three. such stones with: radial jointa, ‘Fig. “288; 
to arrange the jamb stones to form regular jambs, wennEhee? 
fecal in rectangular, or” inclined ta trapezoidal openings. 
interesting example of.a small window with bond suited | : 
-clopean masonry is here given, from the choir of the Ca iedr 

at Treves, Fig. 200, of the end of the 12 wth century. : 
3. In irregular masonry, mostly composed of blocks with reen- 
trant ang lee, Ete. 7 ee an exert of this foc Crees 


oy a > 


CHAP, 16. . OPENINGS IN WALLS. | E, ev “106. 
, Most varied modeg of. covering the openings become possible, | 
and the jotats and possible protecting bosses give rige to pc- 
culiar forms. Such arrangements are entirely pleasing and po- e 
proper for the €ortress-like character of many buildings, aa 
not too affected, as. in the windows of the new Felacs: in Bad- 
en-Baden. Fig. 291. Me: 
4. In mixed. kinds of ‘masonry, partly pullt of quarried tone - ; 
and. partly ‘OF. brick, or. of stones. from river beds. in mien 
ear bond, the openings should. usally be. eovered by. ashlars, 
against which the bond. abuts, or: by arches, agains, whose. top 
the bond abuts as may chance. Beautiful examples of such mix- 
ed masonry of the Roman period, as well as mediaeval, are 
shown in the illustrations from the Imperial Palace at “reves, | ) 
and from a buttress of the Nécolai Church in Bautzen, Figs. 
292, 293; 294. In theifirst, the masonry below the springing | 
is built of: alternations of 3 courses of bricks: and 3 of quar- 
_pisd rubble; the bricks of the arches are not trapezoidal, tinh 
merehy thin bricks; the quarried stones are roughly dressed, 
though not ag. ashlars. — ‘The bricks are 13 3-8 in. long by 1 ra 
16. in. thick, and the joints are as ‘thick as. the bricks. The 125% 
largest tile in the arch ig 218-8 ‘in. square. by 2 3-4 in. thick _ 


* The dressed stones are 5 1-2 in. thick and 7 1-8 to 811-18 tn 


a 


s 


broad. In the last, Pig. 204, larger blocks of granite alter- 
naté@ as voussoirs. with smaller ‘fragments, and. the masonry” is 
composed of quite irregular. granite Pubble, the angles” being 
strengthened by larger regularly dressed blocks of granite. 2 
Opus. reticulatum is seldom otherwise used than tn omy inat 
ion with regular arehes of bate: (or stone, against which it 
abuts as may happen. —s._ . assis A 
5. In peculiar kinds of eeniar masonry, like that praniouat m 
degeribed frem a church in. Naples. and the fortress in ELSBRe es. | 
simple and narrow openings were formed, covered by a. Binet. - 
youssoir, eae oe u age tee 
6. We have already considerea ine eeu openings in ashlar 
masonry for small spans, as in cellar windows. and small open- 
ings of all kinds for admission of light. Ia wider openings, — 
there igs to be especially considered their. covering by. arches, 
(segmental, elliptical,. semicircular. ‘and pointed), ag well as. 
Jointing | these arches. in. connection with the bond of the mason 
ry. To not weaken the crown of the arch, the extrados is ei-- 
ther parallel to the intrados, or the voussoirs are sO arran-— 
ged with the coursed. ‘bond, that the keystone may have the 6g. 
required height. Ifthe arch consists of but 3, 6 or 7 stoneg 
it will not be very difficult to bond them with: the ashlar ma-- 
sonry, as the arch will scarcely ‘affect more than 4 coursés ‘in’ 
height. OF. ageeen ica) ‘Peagone, the ¢ divisions of ‘the vouseot es’ 
mee be go. Lets pete sabes: el eee ee ae 


. ; Se wk. 


CHAP, 16. OPENINGS LN WALLS. ee a Hh RS 108. “4 

must be gO thosen as to be suited to the natural. thickness of a 
layers of the stone, at most 18 3-4 to 23 5-8 in. thick; for” eae 
stability,. it {ts préferabdle to compose the. arch of as many = 
voussoirs as possible. It would therefore be well to base. the 
division of the agch on the least thigkness of layer of the — 
stone,since the youssoir must be thicker at its outer cage 
than on the intrados, and to divide the intrados into as” many 
stones, including the keystone, as. the space permits; gince- | 
for stability, it. is. preferable to lessen the: span of the. 2a 
by corbelling out the abutment, and the division of ‘the arch” poy 
may vary within tolerably distant limits. ae p 

The division of the arch into voussoirs and of the. wall -t 
courses will collide if one division be not made. dependent on ae 
the other, In.the division of the courseg and vougsoirs, | the” ¥ 
following cases are possible;. By ee of equal. height; db, 
heights of courses alternately equal: ‘the. course of uneq- 
Wal heights; d, youssoirs of aes breanens breadths Of 
voussoirs alternately equal; “their widths ines ees 

Since the cena tees Lob entirely Peps ee ‘on. the form ok clea 


bans here that: Bthanely. loaded pee Cy lgeehen: “abould, i 
their depths increased towards their abutments, F ¥ 
high arches Lowery phe tr, aeeean Fig. 285 bps 


towards the crown ‘than towards” ‘the ‘abutments. eae, es ae 

The jointing “OP arches of. wide span, or the: covering of na ae 
row openings, ts. always to be. arranged in accordance. with the ; 
height of the. courses of the material, ee he wall is. puilt of: : 
brick; if the arch ttself be of. brick, it should always: be con a 
structed of youssoirs, of bricks eut or pressed to that form, 
or the bricks retain their. rectangUlar form, and the mortar. 
joints between them are wedge-shaped. But it will in all cas 
es be most proper to make the extPados of brick arches” paral 
‘lel. ‘to their. intrados, for. ‘eR Bn is: always best- in. prick ‘eonstrus a 
tion to employ a normal form of brick throughout; wedge-ghapéed . 
mortar joints are preferable to trapezoidal bricks (?), and to 
dress off the outer. ends of the bricks, to unite well with. the - 
bond, whuld not only be formal, but also useless. (Wedge-shap- 
ed mortar joints ought to be avoided: otherwise, the middle Of < 
the joint ghould be ice or ‘filed: with voles then Ga a. 
on,each face). ae 

tf @ brick arch be not eghnentaia! but han a ‘stepped extradc 
as in ashlar masonry, ‘Pig. 296, this may be-done in two: ways; — 
citaer be horizontal and. vertical, . or horfoantal and Rasen 


fe 
be 


CHAP. 16, OPENINGS: IN WALLS. ae ky Rae 107, 
structuret value, particularly in the second case, as ‘the. 
bricks would have to be cut and rubbed to yousgoir shapes, but 
would often be justified by decorative reasons; one would ~ 
scarcely increase the depth of a pointed brick arch towards 
its crown, or of a segmental brick arch towards its ends, for 
stall spans, Fig. 2987 a, since cutting the separate bricks ares 
would make the strength of the arch doubtful, and to offset 
the bricks would make the arch appear ugly. To construct. the 
arch of several concentric rings (in rowlocks) is structurally — 
meaningless, since only a strengthened ‘arch with radial LOTS 
extending through its entire depth would only appear, also — 
really act as such. Roman afches, composed of several rows, of: 
pigs owe their gtrength. only to the excellence eek the mor 

not to their construction. | (Arches in rowlocks are. often 
See peiae iss not requiring as strong cantres and being also_ 
less liable to crack foom gettlement of. the ipleray.7\45° et 
6 The arch may first be decorated by alternating the baila 
ing materials employed, as in brick DBSOUTY,, VOIBECLED may be- 
inserted between the ‘bricks. of the arch. <A second motive ‘for. 
decorating the arch consists in accent ing its. principal. pointy. 
its crown, springing points, and the location of the joints. Ot 
Rupaene, hana: nee Be hah ‘brick construct ion of ee Duten Renat- 


nes and abonae: at as Jotaes.or rupture doing 1 eee 
of themmost different kine gee of the 

entirely of brick... : oa 
ih falda only Duteh, es also. tal 


ee. Sint: ee the meee ‘of’ the eye. 
Ailes marked. ae these eee are nae Peal ‘but & 


Anette, eee for ea iaseerenadeoaas! bondiats: in : 
Be the Peal: Bieta oily arch over “door or window OS ie 


¢ 


‘CHAP, 18. ° OPENINGS IN WALLS. ~ Bh. A... 108. 
most diverse modes; foliage, heads, shislds of arms, ¢tc., are 
suitable for its characterizjation. The keygtone is the most — 
important point in arched construction and requires special ae 
ceénting; it also otfen serves for the most arsed 2s 
may therefore be formed as a corbel. supporti 
POXBEGS, Rome toes suppers tae a obey 


a keystone will always be a hu 
heads of flioior ete, bist 


opsnings in Sait the fesdines idea, Pe 
of light; in doors to facilitate eine 


nal. Biden ing is dé@sirable or necessary in many ee 
room is to be quickly emptiéd of people,,as in the 
church doors, also for windows intended for observ 
those of dwellings and many public buildings. - Tae 
A further basis for the determination whether an ¢ 
a wall should be etdarged externally or internally, ia 
in which the doors of sash are to open; if. these are not 
ing, the opening must in many cases be splayed. inaide,. tha 
the. door doss not project beyond the jamb, Fig. 301; tf fol 
the splayed jamb need not be so wide and the opening may & 
be splayed externally. If the door or sash be required to 
tirely fit into the splayed jamb, pilasters projecting insta 
will sometimes be necessary, Fig. 302; their projection peyon. 
the inner face of the wall may be considerable, if the wall ~ 
not suificiently thick to receive the entire door or ger 
that this may not project beyond its inner surface. 
Conversely, in doors,. the doorway may project beyond the ox. 
ternal face ef the wall, both for facilitating passage and afte. 
fording a projecting shelter, taus making the opening in the. 
wal] deeper than could be obtained within’ the thickness Of tag 
Wall alone. .-This arrangement maybe necessary at. entrances of 
hianes high Loe ope: et ‘and ermiist buildings for put 


Se aa ON 


CHAP, 3 162. OPENINGS | IN WALLS. “100. 
lic assemblies. : WEI sc | 
me Consideration of Means’ of closing Doors: ‘and Windows, 

In all openings in walls intended» to be. temporarily opened 
or closed, this requirement will aid in determining their ar- 
rangement and plan. Rectangular doors. and windows are. always | 
preferable for the rooms of dwellings, on account of the ad- — 

mission of light, the joinery, ease of opening and closing, © 
and the fixing of curtains before ‘the: ‘opening, usually spanned 
bY a@ segmental or semicircular arch. . In public buildings, fai 
which require. larger doors and windows: on- account. of the. depaih | 
of the room to be. ‘lighted and the greater number of persons, 
the doors and windows. require to be round-headed, or the aoe ep 
ows must be divided by mullions af they have considerable au 
@readth; windows seldom or never opened, by the aid of spectal 
mechanism, or only in part. Tor ‘the sake ‘of ventilation, | like. 
those of churchés and buildings for ordinary purposes of all” 
kinds, are less dependent on the form used for spanning the : 
openings It is: generally unnecessary and. inexpedient. to ‘make 
the doorsppointed at top, Fig. 304, even av the pointed ts the: 
: predominating form of arch in the. ‘building; it. ig one of. the. 
most common faults of architects, ignorant of: the spirit of ak 
Gothic, to believe it néeessary to make the doors ‘pointed be- 
causé the windows. are go, Gothic seldom made doors pointed, 
the discharging areh Was generally. pointed, “put the @oor was cS 
terminated by a straight. lintel or .one ¢ut to a segmental | a 
curve; if the door be made pointed, Fig. 304, the internal open 
ing must commonly bé spannéd by a segnental arch, since they. 
door could not be opened if a parallel\potated aroh were wea 
covering the op&ning by a pointed tunnel vault, ee pees 
4. Limiting Forms of the Material. ne ee: the: ‘Openings aa Poo- 
jéetions,. Borders and, Splays. Ne Wha os 
The construction of thege openings ee apalaes ‘the ‘eubioe: fot: 
the sections of their architraves. Let a b, Figi305, be the ‘ 
direetion of a ray of light passing through an opening: enlarg- 
ed externally, and let ec be a parallel ashlar of the wall; tne 
éntire enlargement of the opening may. be go moulded that. the 
splay a b forms the limit of the moulding. The entire space 
from ¢ to d, Fig. 305 b may also be replaced by a border prof- 
ile, to make the architraye still braoder than before; the par 
allel ashlars and their margins may: ‘also be moved. forward to 
tae point e,, Fig. 305 c, leaving the splay c d, or this may be 
replaced by a@ moulding; in the two first, ‘the. total breadth of © 
ed of the profile is. greater than’.in the ‘third, the enlarge- | 
ment of the opening is equal in the. first and Yast. but the Le 
vreadths of ‘the profiles are different. According to thbspria 
Re nonp ts of treating’ the openings, we have aeer choice how mee 


y aty ‘ 


ee 


CHAP, 18. OPENINGS IN WALLS, Hike EA. 110. 
wide to make the inohitrays and how much to splay the Moonta” 
The principle of this kind of architrave is based on the assum 
ption that the opening in the wall is: formed “DY. omission, when 
the same bond is employed for the entire wally whether stone 
or brick, or in other kinds of masonry, the opsning is enclos- 
ed bY a layer of ashlars or bricks, Pig.306. The second atrue 
tural principle, determining the choice of profile of an open 
ing in a wall, consists in. enclosing the opening by a special 
_aPrehitrave, against Which the masonry abuts, Fig.307. This 
| masonry maybe. ashlar, Cyclopean, | Tubble, brick, or of any ot 
Pe) acs ‘kind, wnhilé the architrave is stone. ‘or prick, es 

By the wall-face is always understood the real or ‘gaeal ver. é 
tical plane from which the panelled ashlars project, and- which 
cOincides with the faces of those with triangular joints, in 
accordance with the fess prinbipbe of the cOnstruction of op- 
enings in. walls, the profile of the architrave is always mete 
hind the wall-face, but may project in front of this dn accoré — 
ance with the second principle; both principle s must. ‘alWays be 
képt distinct and. never ‘combined, so as to have. the architrave . 
project in. front of the face of the wall, unless {t. be ‘struct-— 
urally separate, for toherwise surplus. stone must be dregs ed ea 
off Gach block of” ‘the, architrave. — ee aie 

In very thick walls, the openings. have very wide Acids hal 
may be constructed of ashlars, either as shown in Plan aba 
and b, ‘Fig. 308, where the spaly is produced by. stones” a.) 
liquely, OP in’ accordance with the plan c and da, Fig. 309, 
where the spalys are produced by. rectangular offsets; ‘the ex: 
ples b and d represent the architrave as projecting consider 
bly in front of the wall-face. In case d the ‘Pectangular of 
gets may be replaced by small columns. tn. windows” and entrance 
or the angles between the offsets may. be ftlled by small col 
unns, Fig.310, BOge. capitals: ‘supporting: arches: ‘profiled in 
any manner. Sou. 

es Spectal on ‘Doora, Windows, mee: etc. eee 
Openings in Walls are openings LOve admission of ‘light, 
windows, or they are passages of all kinds, as doors, gat ewayy 
tunnel portals, gateway bridges, openings for discharge of we 
ter, embrasures, openings for ventilation, ‘ete. Windows are 
forméd in vertical walls, either with Be yertical axis, or are. 
wheel-widdows, in which is included all windows’ arranged about 
@® contre, or are in esilings, as skylights. — According ‘to ther 
_ugeg, windows principally belong to. dwellings, public pti: 
ings and palaces, or to curches. We shall. ‘describe. openings 
in walls in the following order: 1, windows of dwellings; 2, — 
windows of public buildings and pakaces; 3, windows of: ehurch-'— 
es; 4, wheel -windows; 5b, tracery of windows; 6, skylighte; 


merely intended for useful ‘purposes, will take the simpler — 


tant separate motives may be deduced from these as being norm- 


_trave may be ‘entirely omitted, 1 OF: be simply treated, sofformed — 
as to admit as much light as possible, with an @xternal rebate 


_en fame of the window fits into a rebate in the atone, Fig 
Shae If the windows of ‘the cellar. story only serve to light 
“rooms in the cellar, they are generally made subordinate, eat 
tae most varied combinations with the ashlar masonry of the- 
substructure are admissible, like ‘those ‘menticned in. ‘resting 
the simpler methods of covering small openings ta walls. Bpe- 
cial arrangements result from combining the windows | of the fev 
basement story with those of the ee@lian oS wee oe 


~penting will contain smaller and ‘therefore less respectable 


at the same time in the taller houses, the basement story 


CHAP. 18. “OPENINCS IN. WALLS. ee Be dL 
7, doors; 8,. larger gateways, including city gates, fortiess 
gates, triumphal arches; §, tunnel portals; 11; gateway bridg- | 
és; 12, openings €ar dischars se of water, for ventilation, em- 
brasures, etc. Si cee os her aN 
l. Windows of.Houses. First ee ge ee 
First consider windows of dwellings, because the mos t impor. — 


a1 arrangements. Windows of very plain buildings and of: oe 


forms already treated. The problem is always to obtain the | 
best effect with the simplest means. . age os 
a. Cellar Windows, eis ee ig fea teage 
Their proportions change | in. Seok? case. “From their low ate 
they are made as broad as possible, if the. admission of congid 
erable light ts desired, and are then. eitaer grouped in ‘twos, : 
threes, ete., splayed daside, spanned by a proportionally low 
horizontal lintel, which may. be omitted when the water. table 
itself forms the lintel, Fig. 311, The profile of the archi- 


if wooden céllar gash are necessary, — OF. “bt the windows. are. SPAKE 
ed, With an internal rebate, which may be omitted if the wood 


bY “Windewa iW the Gedeuag Beane eee ee eae 
The forms of windows in the basement or lower gtory are al- 
ways suited to their arrangement. The ‘basement at. a house for. 


dwellings, than those. in the first story, the doorway and en- 
trance hall ohdamsaplva & part OF ite Bpaeee or it will be taken 
for a small shop. — ib 

In detached houses and villas, the basement sae contatne | 
the reception rooms , dining room, etc,, thereby becoming the 
principal story, while the upper story pecomes subordinate and. 
contains the bed-rooms, breakfast room, nersery, boudoir, etc, — 
if a second or third story. is found in city houssg for. renting 
these stories also contain gubordinate dwellings. The ey 
ter of the stories must be indicated by the SRChT Lee rare; ea 


ne 


Foring the base of the hems ate so and the yuPrr story ae 


ERA EO a 


pi oie the upper part should be light and, the lower heavier, a 
peenee must be. made; in Siac, be sid fa the different stories, 


trave). 
wigs” and 9 - 100 Mead ape 


__ Bei ect ion Fic. 315; 


RAE “CHAP. ye, OPENINGS: IN WALLS! Hee odes 
its Pe apes and ‘since Th expresses the natural feeling, 


great development. of “the ba 
| Dresden; 


ak sof a oer his wid 
the least to the. greatest measure, - ; 
pots the haps i tobe at the aed pui Idi 


the. “angles of ‘the: Dope, 
tame: of the. window. Th pro, 
front.of the face of. jhe als 
phate or aan Se nu in. for. Sekai 


ue ‘Por. auoliet Vinioed had 
ee 


with eh a or ‘by. delicat 
ge we. 8. a 


oo OHAPS 16. "OPENINGS IN. WALLS. 
projection. ea Oe | 
8 to 20. For wide! windows, Pig. 317, “more. or. ‘Teds: ‘simple or 
rich, “richly or plainly profiled, “with: or. without sunken pan: 
els, breadth 7 in., projection 1 3-8 to 2 in. Figs.317,9 to20. 
In all these profiles, ease of Ribas yt sees effect, 
the projections of each fillet, “cove 
and reverse ogee, 
pecullariti Li 


Nos, 4, at. By 
PR a ae -. ei ; 


bige the. ® peculiar farms 
” t Pay e3; .' 


‘iguaty, Cpeetiiec! 
9-10 in. and mus b- 
Terece the window 


ewe arohtirays. litle 6 : en a 

mos t only the. principal band besides th es 
pansis, forming squares at the angi are | 
cation to the. ears, like diamond panels, sinc¢ 
- Would be. produced in the ee ‘ease and u a 
whe Yast,” Adel stares i : : 


trave ‘around the ean. al te 
Dibeaer: er the cee Fig. 381; but ‘the jamb mst t 


like so many things devised ‘by a mistaken classicism, 
If a window jamb standa ona separate ‘sill, which: must 


abuts against the st aes eo ) 


gainst an inelined plane, -an especial favorite dering 8 


CHAP. 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS. | oe ya. 
ion of the Sar, ate 323, amean the. jamb mist be about 9- 1 he 
thicker. 

It is to be noted here, “that. a variation ote the dpsengencnt. a 
of the Sars, found in stuccd work: as well as in mitred wooden - 
architrayes, ig only proper and justifiable in gtone construc. © 
tion, where no attention need be paid to jointiag and construc 
tion, as it: the architecture were. changed - into pure sculpture, — 
which ts possible. in the soft ‘sone of Paris. Ben Gate stucco. WOR: 
plaster work, one ig. entirely independent. for: the. construction 
and may therefore change. the ears. at. plosaure. 4 : 

To employ inclined jambs, or to make. them wider ‘below than 
at top to obtain &pace for the ears, would be archaic 2 
scarcely justifiable in normal “Cases; it should also ‘be remen- 
bered that the height of ‘the. ears may frequently be fixed by — 
walt} members, band - Tike. ‘friezes” that run. along the-wall, o 3 
the arrangement of mouldings with less: projection that the 
ears, Fig.324. The Renaissance or: Rococo idea of placing gute 
ta@ beneath the @ars~ to indicate that’ the window belongs 
the Doric style is ‘objectionable i being @ pedantic fancy, 


sufficiently from the wall ‘So: ste ‘space for. ie bap 
lowing cases become possible; ef rr the ar : 


327. &, against an inclined 4 
ecaleéd by an ornament, 
Fig. 327 ad, 


aad: herstore: BAe sy the: te enc of the medidas 


dle Ages, ig” ‘the: ‘simplest. and. yet. most primitive fe 
ble for the forms of jambs Limpert bedi 


size. ead einige abrangenentas. PEE Va Perl outta eevee 
the foot of ‘the jamb is to be: considered Ce Hema teggene vent 
ion, and it may be either single oP: ‘double, either . 
ranged on the front, or also. ‘on the sides. Fig. St da. € 
most pleasing arrangement; though requirthg most work in stone 
cutting, is. that: in: which the. foob of the jamb - ig ‘concealed “by 
ah ornament, a fhode of tréatment mach in’ fayor In (German and — 
a ased Renatagance, aon) Vn coer yeas Ch) ee 
Ox, Windows Capa ey. See ec Fanaa oath gree a 
The most’ ‘obvious: expedient’ for. enricning the appearance ota 


window, at the same: time. partly protecting it from rain water — : 
and. balanetng ‘the stil, ote ‘the use or cone: above the winds Br “i 


“eOOHAP. 28. PENINGS’ iw WALLS, co Ve ee 
larging | ‘arch. tay? ine most. A vadqet ances above tne arent: 
of Window, above which a cap may find’ room; tais ta 
re separated from the. architrave by a frieze- like 
space, Fig: 3e8 If Agha fee plastered, the disena 
arch. ig concealed b ie @ plastering, if constructed 
-dinary materiale; if eearerulty parle ae ids 
Brey ait-may r main | 
the: Dlagves & 


halt Ca nich EL fhe 
lars, these being cut tO” vouggoir. shape, Fig. 329, or. it 
be ¢onesaled behind a slab o i gtone, woieh cae be ; encl 
os bogder be decorated: by ornaments” ing ie. ; D 
from: a better Se e 


ong The same width a8 the window wen. ears ‘are. “present : 
not. to. 6rceroach: on them: 3 ig it es 
this. frieze when: the Cap ene. the lintel ‘of the Sandon 
8d: £F Om a single block and: are, therefore strong enough to su 
= Pore. tne weight of the wall, or wien a special discharging > 
_ aréh 1s placed: above them The cap will then rest direc 1y n 
‘the lintel of the window, from which. th: should a We Ye be @pa-. 
rated bya vigible joint, “Fg. 4330, ieee : o 
The cap” is a horizontal tae pe ae stone bul Lt) into the. wali, 
which, ah: the, simplést form, has i 
drip. at ite: lower edge,” Pigasal a ‘Its projection r 
be supported by a moulding beneath to make it satis# 
the eye, Fig: 331: bi anes a. better ie | ment. 
mould ing above. he Fig. Bal ogee 
the ues with, piopeed ee - 


The ai pearanak dt “eater ot: eae seein nas 
| steeper ‘or: more nearly horizontal Wash. fas Upper mend 
333, 74.58) ‘terminating or crowning one, ‘the. lower ing 

ontal and supporting one, Fig. 334," ‘evidently. tne richer 
ments these ménbé6rs may be. decorated. bY leaf ‘moulding 
astragals, dentils and similar ornamental elements, 
to circumstances, “One may take 7 1-2 in. for the heftght of — 
‘the cap in normal Cae ee if pools to be. ae wash may 
bg: more a | Meares oh & 


The: project 


a 
r 
F 


CHAP. 16. “OPENINGS IN WALLS.’ - jae 7. Se oO uy 

Sliding out the cap and its drip further; this mode of increas 
ing thS projection is dangerous in that the cap appéars heavy 
in proportion to the entire architrave of the window, though - 
not sufficiently protecting this from rain; at the sams time, — 
it may appear to project teo much at. the énds. “A mederate ‘pre. a 
jéction of the cap is therefore paeferable, and its projection 
may 66 made léss~ at its ends than its front, so that its under = 
surface appears of: “unequal breadth, Pig. 335, be upEr and: Salas 
er members projecting equally all round.  «- ee 

[t-ig incorrect. to regard a ‘cap as being a principal cornice 
on a reduced scale ag ugually done; the cornice and cap may of 
ten serve similar purposes, but are also essentially different. - 
In Many casés.. The projecting eornice, which erowns the waole . | 
“May serve as the terminal member for many objects, buildings  _ 
as Wel] ag. furniture, so) that: supporting or crowning, iignt. or” 
heavy, lower and upper memberg appear desirable, without the  — 
need of a Water spout, a leading feature of the cornice of the 
Classic temple. By’ traditbenal custom the Greeks imitated the 
form of tha water gutter where it. could not be Pequired, just 
as the architects of the Middle Ages fom force Of habit also 
employed the so-calléd gargoyle when useless. ‘The famous door 
of the Erectheum, above which a regular cap occurs TOR: qhe- rie 
firgt time after the older Egyptian templea,— ‘and which ‘te. eG 
eemed as of unique beauty by the orthodox: Neo-Hellenieta,ex- 
nibits a mixture of refined sculpture and a lack of architect 
ral thought. A cap of similar chargeter,. whose. egowning mémb- 
er is changed {nto a formal water gutter, may be appropri RG 
in certain eases if: the. crowning member bemade a gutter canes 
thin metal above a widely projecting. geison of ‘thin’ boards. ese 
But the tmitated gutter is meaningless,’ when a mere. form, poal- 
filling no purpose, and if the Greeka had become accustomed BOs 
regard the cornics and ¢ ‘water gutter as inseparabbe ideas, or 
had réachéd the false. conclusion, that since & Water gutter | ae 
must be treated as a crowning member, conversely, | 2 cronies 
member must be formed Like a Buttery, Wee Hapa s not. imitate any 
nonsense of that kind. ~ °°: ee aes, oH, 

 Gothie likewise committed the: Peale. of este. the very appre. 
priate wash with its drip, ‘conmon ly. ‘emp Loyed a8 a: cornics,. 88> 8a 
& Natural form of cornice where no Water was to be. thrown Mofo 4 
The’ Greeks employed the géison aa the principal Part. of the © 4 
cornice, making this project as far as possible so. that ghelt- — 

er from rain,might be found beneath. it, > The: Midd be Ageés ‘fare 
ed torrents of rain but little and desired to get rid of the Res 
rain water ag quickly as possible in ratner.a short-sighted . 
Way without caring enough for ita final disposal or whether . 
any provision would. Be. made: for ‘this or not. The. need of a 


principal 


chap, 18. - oPENINGs: IN WALLS. 

prveiser eormics existe ‘for a ‘wardrobe, oe ahOW. or. an. altar, 
ust as. much as for bela or a tower: etiti, ‘in the thr o 

first cases it will on Ty act as a ‘eroming member and not t 
carry off water, In. the same way a@icap may ‘be required mh the 

interior of 5 building, for furniture, niches in walls 
for altars, monuments, agoors and windows . 

gobe esthetic requirements without fulfi 


1 to. Ce BP ojection 
ends. must be. supported: by consoles. | : 


doors. 

: have the sane width 

“eed, Fig. 356, re pl 7 side the ar 
extends between ee 8 betoie of strong 
then preferable, “correspond ng to the slender? . 
ow. No. absclute’ rule can_ be given for. ‘their d mens ne 
vee hited serve 28 3 baste to te 


tn: seer ag snangatenueien: anes paid 
eap and also pee icae OE. ae consoles. Whi 


fiable pecause’ ib nay t 


cease tye: panel. 


game prea “yaretyes 
el fal rogeleais ous Bau) 
| ire 


ae to ‘Pecetrs. Mabe. AREA Tare, pereay Teast y to 1a 3 gai 
MELEE SE ER hada ne 


‘ , 
TRL alitllghaeting 


' d 
CHAP, 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS, to Bae Ba ETB, 
ully developéd architrave mouldings. This projection’ is s0: 
ereat as to require some lower members, as the sill would ap- 
pear too heavy without then, and these lower members must de 
supporting ones. If moulded jambs are used, the front surfac 
of the sill would appear too heavy and solid“if left plain; 2g 
ay therefore be finished with sunken panéls, but must then 
project more so as to afford the jambs a firm support, Fig. 338 
This arrangement was already known in theeclassic period, exam 
ples being found in the Erectneum, and the Temple of Vesta at 
Tivoli, 

In the rainy North the sill “must usually have a drip to pre- 
vent the water from. running down the wall, and this end is 
more perfectly attained when the sill ag an upper crowning. 
member, which.not only throws the water further from the wall 
than a simple slab would do, but also gives the: entire sill a 
nobler and richer appearance, Fig.340. This upper member ig - 
generally returned at-the ends of the si@ls; the result is 
that the water either runs down the wall at the angles of the 
silly or that special precautions must be taken to prevent 
this. evil; a further result @g that the sill is wider tnan the 
window. The simplest méans of leading thewwater away from the 
wall] consists in forming a small spherical wash at the angles 
of the sill, Fig.341, scarcely visible £rom below. The widen- 
ing of the sill caused by the addition of an upper member ma- 
kes its upper surface a very convenient support for persons 
looking out of the window, for flowering plants, etc. To bet- 
ter satisfy similar requirements, the Middle Ages and Henais- 
Sance sometimes corbelled out gills; The following modss of 
arranging sills are now mogt common. 

I. The sill is isolated, not being connectéd with otner ar-. 
chitbectural details to form &@ part of the enclosure of the — 
window, simply projecting from the wall. The sill sheuld have 
a moderateproj ection, only as much as absolutely necessary. 
Profiles similar to 1, 8, 7, 8 or 9, Fig. 343, may be suitable, 

2. The sill projects from a continuous flat string course, 
along which are continued the upper, lower, or all the members 
Of the sill, Fig.342. If this continuous string course be 
flat and projects from the surface of the wall, the profile of 
the, gill may spring directly from it (see 1 to 9, Pig. 342) or 
may project by the breadth of the lower Repiwen tat fillets: -A 
profile like 10 permits the gill to-be made lower than the 
string course, while the lowest vertical fillet may coincide 
with the string course, Fig. 344. If the string cours® and 
sill are alsowmoulded alike, the sill either does not project 
and ecoincides with the string course; or it requires to be sup 
ported by consolss, smalippilasters of slight projection, or a 


CHAP...) BB 2NINGS IN’ WALLG: Ge" Bo LTO ee 
projection of the Sai ins in case it eee aut: ers the’: % 
string-course. If the upper or lower’ members of the sill are = 
ged se on tne string-course, it should have a gréater proyeee 

tinn and a more golid character than in the second case; it in 
the first case appears as a strongly projecting cornice; A Ge 
the s@cond, as a lighter band with terminal or crowning membe 
Org, ies S45 The prejection of the sill may then be obtain- | 
éd in different. ways, either by. omitting the drip or the strig mS 
courge, by supporting the sill on small PORBORES small Pilea it 
ters, or by a projection of tne wall. : 


_3. Tag sill is supported by consoles." ne same general ae 


they should have - ‘the ‘same “breadth : as the. architraves | ‘beneath : 
. which they. should be exactly placed; ‘they enclose a a © bet 

‘ween. ‘them, if as often happens, they Pest on a base. ‘or. @ cor 
Wi Ps Lee a small band ‘beneath: their lower Spite pane and 


‘The upper « 
of ‘the: noncdtpe sd When. these ace aise a oul et Oe 
require condideration on both points. The under side of tt 
sili: like. that of the ee ae not Bane pe ae ated by Ss nie 
en panéls, caffers, 4 put 3 e sil 
pear teh y i ate oe nes: 


‘their alii ‘forms a ‘geat on. “the interior, "ahere wail te placed — 

ee balustrade -of iron lattice-work Ora: fixed window, to ser : 
aS a& ‘back, OTe a second balustrade intended to. support ‘the arms 
This. aril de also. ‘be the case. if ince peg id are esd » 


OT Se 
jy hs 


wa > 


wat 
>> 


pust sie. ie ote Sea ce nas. 


Me fully My es 


‘CHAP. ve: OPENINGS | IN WALLS. ia ee Pail 
for age stat reasons it be. desirable to hav atece the string 


fcourse, as. an) normal eases, at the same height as the inner 
beams, but higher, to give me stronger construction to. the win- 
‘dows and their discharging. arches in the lower. story. ‘ e 


string- -oougse is then usually. placed at ‘the. same height as 


ae sill, but may be placed lower if required, and the gill be 


then. formed like a low base, Lg. 3436, {t ‘may be advisable t 


mention in fourth case, that” of making. the eal, 


in. of: masonry and ingerting eee proje 
and. ee Bahia es be turn ero 
347; Cas se 


he Pe eas fone sie 
ee from the Dresden” School. 


At 


profiles, of ‘which! a. 


ves bi 


tne wi h 
fon decent of iron. nha 


mm ves is” increased. Py. the 
Con the ti 
MiGk |: oe 


omit nae cabestale Gromer e 1e° 

in front of tne jamb of. the window, $ ret 
stopping against ar reveal, which. wlee! ae erm 
projection, Fig. 36,. A further: ‘simple 1 rm 


vorite. in the. Ttalian one eeetenn 


Seca ‘OF for: ‘subordinate Desc meaey 


ae 

. motives: are ey ol oped. bee wary. 
BS out the. sill, ana by carrying 
hot. Tae corbelled sill : 


’ 
i¥ ’ 
. 
x 
. 
; 
al 5 
i 
. 
. ‘ 
* 
. 
fi 
, ’ 
; 
.*, 
‘ 


ss 


VBEOTLLS of the architraye, Fig. 355.. 


especially with forms of console-like volutes. ine connection 


closure Of. inserted sculptures by architrayes, ‘built into the 
Walls as if. found on ‘the ‘site of the ‘building by the ¢ 
tors, and al ae to be harmonized wines the architecture, | 


ve OY Roplntng. mG en ene Ede ral tee: ser: with’ caps, 
consoles, and other window-motives. ei re 
go. ee Geil these ee Oe. ; 


po eee cases, mpeonatae: to “the: opens tees wh . t 
“are employed, they may take any. suitable form other than Pect 


way, Pig. 359. The same ig true of all smaller. area 


“stories. lead to dissatisfaction with simple forms” of 


OL a: building. — ‘Natural. ‘requirements and associated ideas ‘led 


.story; of the belle etage as the most prominent OT ally "gevere 
and: yet noble, and of the uppermost as the. lightest. and most 
graceful, requiring and capable of the most decoration; a 
“ ground- law of architectural treatment also consists, ot in 
seeking variety and richness in change of motives alone, aBMte: 
‘in the enhancement of motives. — From simple window archi tray es 
we have obtained the following series ele We motives. jt 


tre ave with Cae 4, ‘architrave with: Ca and sill; 5S. arent 


CHAP, 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS. = LA “aah 
Fig. 355, and its profile may be formed . independently of ene 


Another motive, “derivdd. from these and similar arrangements, 
consists in decorating ‘the outline. forms of the outer band; 


with foliage and palm-leaves, employed. during the High Renai 
ssance for the mos t diverse (iphitage apde, to tend a patecrey 
apa eas tae the. ome) ler) ndows 0: 2 


356, ae Botan eh ee pee ads ‘thts: eg he We 
From thie. Was. developed the. inexhaustible motive of the 6n 


Fig. 358; 


angular, be treated as. wheel-windows, or formed pda igee 


in all kinds of buildings. _ oe os 
-h. Abnormal Forms of Caps. OR 
Different. requirements may exist, “which in inode 


caps and to a search for Pickhersforms.  T a 
this is always. the desire to. emphasize the difterent ‘stories 


to the treatment of the. basement as the heavy, “pela and simple. 


Be Architrave without ears; 2, architrave with ears; 3, 


trave — 


CHAP. 18. OBENINGS IN WALLS. == ss RAL OLB. i 
brave with Caps above consoles; 8, architrave wita Cap, and 
etl} supported by corbsis; 7, architrave with cap and a spec % 


tal. proj set ion. of. the wall as a base below the window; an en'-. 
richment of the motive leads to 6, where an angular pediment | | 
cap is introduced: and further to. 9, with cimcular pediment... 
Cap: Which becomes tae decorative circular cap 10, by interrup) 
ting the eap by an ornamental group. in’ exceptional cases, a | 
cap recéives an attic for reception of an inscribed tablet, Coe 
,or 12, a purely ornamental centre-piece:’ Fig. 360 a, b. | 
Take, for example, a four-story detached house, Fig.361,  ” 
which is to have four different facades, a being the unbroken 
principal facade next the street, \b the fae @ next. the garden 
with a projection and the prtneipal entranced, ¢ and ad being 
the garden facades with projections; each etry containg a:« 2, 
smal] flat, consisting: of kitchen and appurt ane es , Water. 
closet, dining room, frecept ton room, living Poom,.bed: rooms: 3 
three eladows im each faeade being sufficient. The house pos-s 
sess@g ungraceful proportions: the basement should therefore 
first be separated from the other storise bY a string course 
id the upper story treated Tike a £fieze or ehelosed= bya © 
nd, tO ba lane @: tne bagement etbor yy We now. have to Make th 
indows of the Belle etage: more prominent: Apap thos © of = 
ther story, 80 ag %o charactant ze- this } 
Phare rere furnish ded pes with ele 


dontatne the ' living room ‘and is gubordinated. ‘on that ie. : 
the othér projection eontaing the dintng room and is s0 isp 
las*to enlarge this and inereage the varied effect of the whole 
The living room is charegterized by a Window with angular ped=~ 
iment. -If we dasume, tne dining Poom to have a balcony, the ««¢ 
door to this balcony also, serves las & window, would differ. e ! 
from the other windows,/.and would therefore require | its BPer | 
cial distihctiom. To treat the windows of the kitchen, We Ge 
and dining room more plainly than the remining ones of the - 
same flat will hardly-be proper if a pleasing appearance. of | 
the house on the garden side is required, for the unfty would © 
suffer from too great variety, and this inferior treatment, | 
would indicate. those rooms, which should be ignored: as PSH fac 
pogas tole. : 
The treatment would be. Lowered domaine’ in. the second. ator ‘ 
the window of the living room in the proj ection would receive: | 
4 cap without pediment but. with smal congoles. The other win: 
@ows of the story should ‘have caps without consoles and, with 
out separate silis.: Finally, theewindews of the third stony 
would MELOY, TAY ©. arch ia ae Sah would produce. a suffters ee 


eee | "hae af wey a i ( 
‘i ; {xv af, 
Vg hy ~~" 
va 
7 lL : 
} ; \ 
i 
1 
, 
J 
, 
, 
t 
j 
' ay 
rf WN 
. 
‘ 
{ 
f 
; 
i 
‘ 
¥ : ‘ . f ne ‘ Pal ae oe 
‘ Mo ase 
7 L ‘ eae 
: Mi ‘ } Tah t j 4 Wes, 
M4 , WO hia ey 
/ 


% a 
Oe OHAE ce : apeitues in WALLS. : nae tay Beige ree 
“their aepmeetéan with the Hee yet the window of 
bet Tate distinguished by a decorative cap, Pts 
a we the basement will¢fulfil their purpose 
e hey are of -cl apie it, as they act in conjunction with one 
| base of the ot a. more severe and simpler treatment «— 
than. Shas ee 6 Of the belle stage will be proper. 
in’ @ 9 Es nyetine Baie ‘Dat two Of these will be seen 
at te gato gy . eed are tobe eonsidere 
the two mae eT eRe ¢ me 

pear peniiec oY Saves era, because but a eihgie: kind ce) 
window: Ls Peunse ea ery. ie 

THE side * 
‘arisd; yer um 

ths aoorws 
ightinkg thea 
eh ReG In Sipe 
Na Os Of Che 
i sohot Only git 
8 String eoura 
ence on” the forms 


salen together,’ form a group of 
There ‘still peneins the vrea teen 
usta! Ly have-@ transom. light for if 
windows of the staircage hall are” 
P, Rot at the seme height az the — 
f with referenes to the Pend ngs. 
tO. many peculiar eombinations with » 
it ‘y perhaps exerciss a reacting: inth 
of the other facadssi;Stnes a harmony: of” 
the facades may one oe obtained when all the motives oceur-, 
ring Ons then tind a fullest’ development, ‘the: arrangement: 
Of, the gtaireape windows agstmed here ‘confltets with those oF 
: the other facades pend PCCM Res to: be softened, The staircas 
i HI agli windows sérve pUPrpS. / other: than thoss. of the: living rooms : 
and should therefore be developed in a difrferent, way. The i¢ 
est window serves asa traneom for: lighting the hall and ma Yi. 
reesive.an atcular pediment Caps: or in its place sy be ased™ 
‘ @-tablet ineeribed with the-name of the owner, date of erect. 
ion, €te. The window above this has a decorated eircular ped 
tment, whose character £8 always lead severe than that- of ani 
igular pediment CAD. a uppermost window. fay” have = purely 
decorative CS De' bay 
Asai shave: here piven an inakee vies RG US NAMIE pe exped ients: 
should ‘be pup loved in. a special case. “The general ground-law 
ef co trast of effect and of internal and external truth det- 
 epmine. oun shotce oF the different motives of form, srareaae 
ain normal; ‘not . throwing together motives at, our: 
“lew of enhancement of motives,. with the other lew, ; 
é . sépies of similar elements’ require the middle and ends 
(bes be made prominent. because being special pointa, or that | 
< their recarrence in a periodic seriss mush be accented, requ 
© res. (the strongest motives’ to. characterize the points to be 
‘toon’. prominent, and the.weaker to beggaubordinated, an 
e reean gon b to Haas om the motives at the estos 
stories, pes aia es: 


sry des i Mirciicer eaten 
hye ( A Ae, 


eg 
& 


“Ea 


CHAP. 18, OPENINGS «IN WALLS: Be Aw: ia 
in @ Villa consisting merely of a basement and ‘firat story; . 
it would be in accordance with the meéane at our disposal and. 
also wlth the character of the butiding, to select for viata 
dows of the belle etage or lower story a stronger or richer mo-| 
tive of form, than for the upper story. a window with cap and - 
sill, both on consoles, would usually. be sufficient fer richer. 
designe: but the etronger motive of the angular: pediment, or Ste 
the Weaker on@ Of) a. decorated . €ap, would be restricted tay thos 
vindows of the game story, which are to be specially character 
ized; thus the strongest motiveumimt not ‘be selected for the 
corer one, Leaving no means ‘rematning” for distinguishing spe 
cial cages, and aes a Oke meaesnd tO 8 lesser motive. 
[in the eames Way y 
should se poner adts | degre, that: ne belle: Mines. may. have its 
aus effect. Lf the bags@ment be also the belle stage, a combi ~ 
atton of the: aPchitectura of the windows. with the bage and th 3 
whe cellar windows in 4 grouped motive ; or the combined’ ef 
ect Of these elements ag a. whole, ey en” ive mot connected, will” 
appeat, eo. bold’ end. soerich, that the sills ae not. Pequire. ae : 
add Lae effect oF. corbels. © epee Pt 
The windows of the) upper story, which only don tanus: th 
rooms preak fast room, nursery, ‘dressing rooms | and. guest cham 
or, While the bel te. bia contains the rooms for soctal purpe = 
3, the msterhs poom, living room, ete. , should therefore 
sated ins subordinate way, be simpler, and therefore’ lig 
erand $ess ayers, « Conversely, if the: belle @tage be the” 
Sp story, and the ground floor be allotted te inferior: pur 
sés, the basement must be simply and boldly treated and’ ae 
néeavbler,: walle the belle etazge Kreguires’ Ptener ane, evilt Bur 
si, rong and é6@legant forma, 
The Ttalian Renaissance may ve one onan with having wae 
ned Doric, Lonie/and Corinthian orders ae.a fixed series Of 
the chatacters of the stories, calling. the etroular pediment. 
fonit, and the angular one Corinthian,’ Forgetting that: in coms). 
paring Pound and angular pediments of equal height, the: round 
pediment always possesses the character of heay {ness with. feces 
strength than: the angular one; this caused a contradiction ‘SB 
the architecture of. many palaces. and house6s), if Doric’ columns’ 
were employed in the basement and Ionie tn the first etory, © 
with alternating circular and angular pediments, as in the Pan” 
dolphint Palace, Florence. Alternation of round . ‘and ‘angular , 
pediment caps in the same way has ite advantages, ff the evory ” 
eontaina more than three windows; a certain eontradiétion ¢yen 
then remains, as on the .facade of tae Bartolini? Palaces. Flor- 
ence; the stronger motives are: too much concentrated... If the, 
caps alternate in case of four Wide’ i aS ae Pando phtn§ j 


r 
’ 
m 
f 
i 
‘re q 
+ t 
mS \ 
‘ 
: 
~ 
ce 
: 
tae 
1 
id 
: Y 


CHAP. 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS, | hm Ay Tek 
Palace, Plorence, and the Parnese Palace, Rome, a doubly un- — 
graceful result ts produced ag the ends are different without) 
any reagon therefor; and the eentre is net accented, An alter 
nation weuld first becomé suitable in cass of five windows, os 
pecially if angular pediment caps were used at the middle and - 
ends; with. cricular pediment.caps over the intermediate wind-~ 
ows. Palladio used this expedient in the Chieragatt Palace at 
Vicenza witn good resalts. In case of a longer series of Hoe 
dows, Tound andyengular péediménts should preferably only be. 
ployed agra i: f£, emphasizing the centre and ends. The ada 
joined % 62, give examples of ways in which a: 3 
missible in different cases without in 


change. ¢ 
jury tot riety. 
i. Fo ee t Caps. ee : 
As for the f Aguiar and setreular pediment nave n “thet 
heights: may bs a yabout 1-4 to. 2-9 their spans. The mould-. 


ryed pediments are similar to those of 
wo following cases may ocgur; the upper 
or erewning member “either merely carried around the pedim-— 
eit ¢ap and omitted: on the horigZontal return, which terminates 
Y top merely with. the member connecting the facia.and tHe, “=4 
WH mould; 2% the: ‘entire moulding is carried along the horl< 
outa eorniee, on Which the moulded gable rests, and’ gtops a+ 
gatngt 6 slightly inelined plane. In the first case, the aie 
srmediate fillet enclosss the tympanum; in the dest, ‘ 
dione by the upper fillet bd, Pig.363. ~The upper member ay 
fully developed in front\as well as sidewise, requires to be. 
slightly broken at the anglé of the cap, which in? reality ts:: 
less disturbing than 1f the profile be distortéd af the ee 
The vacant spacé enclosed ‘by the mouldings of a eireular ae 
angular pediment 1s properly decorated by an Ornamént, a shi 
shisld.of arms, head, wreath, by decorative: sculptures, eto. 
Fig. 364, so as not to produce the impression of emptiness . and 
heaviness: the back-ground of this tympanum maypproj ect beyond 
the face of the wall if the pediment ts supported by consol 6a.) 
Classic and Renaissance styles gave the game profiles to an- 
gular: and circular) péediments and to the horizontal caps on: ah 
which they rést. Strictly speaking, this is unnecessary; the | 
pediment is always something different from the horizontal ¢ 
and it-has too heavy an effect tn many cased, 1f both have tn 
game profile: in the horizontal cap, the géison 1s the se 
pal part, but. is of*secondary importance in the pediment, ‘and » 
the crown mould of the euryed or angular pediments will, take. 
the first place, as being the crown ing menkier Of, the entire 
window, the geigon playing @ subordinate part; it wilt there Eve 
fore® ‘not be Seah to make the oe bagh of the: anguips aN “A 


hori#ontad: CApSy. 


“— 


ts fe ei 


= 4a vg ¥ 
p 
i oe 
' 
\ 
a 
' 
: 
V ‘ 
a 
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5 
re 
. V 
“a 
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if 4 
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2 
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a; 
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al 


aad ; ak lib oe yp ve 
CHAP, 16, OPENINGS IN WALLS, / ee ey A 8 
ved peciment narrower than that of the horizontal cap, to al. 9 
low the erown moulding of the former to predominate, the lats~— 
ter ending with merely a terminal member, and» to make the gup--— 
porting lower member of a pediment lighter then that of the | 
hortzontal Gap, Fig. 366, evar ‘S ee 
Broken ettenlar pediments are produced: by actenting thé mide. ~ 
dle of the arch by a grouped ornament of any kind,( foliage, 
suspended garlands, wreaphs, shields of aPms, vaess, palm-leaveg / 
néads, @te.), placed between the volute-like’ ends of the brok- > 
én eurye, Hig. 366... The uppenffillet of the erowning member ts | 
curyéd around an éys, formed like a ros 6tté,” against which, "= 
and the Ornament, the other members stop. These broken circu. - 
lar pedfmentgcaps, as well as the purely d@corativse caps, neth — 
ing else than ornamental: crowning above horizontal caps, per- — 
mit a £re6 treatment, Which may be varied in ae¢cordance with he 
the spécial cas® in which they-are MBB near artes i eee 
[f it be justifiable to break the less peyere. cireujar pedi- «| 
mont caps 2nd give them @ decorative character, to break angu- | 
5 iar pediments at the apex,-a rayorite tdex in late’ Roman. and 
| late R@naissance, sO. fhat. a buat or other ‘sculpture may. proj . 
3ct above the aPeX, if on Obj 6ctitonabis exned tent of degenerat: 
)ort; “hich passes beyond ite natural limite, \Avglvsn motive. 
mY not be modified or enhanesd. at pleasure, but only within 
certain dimits, 9 Many things indeed exist, which aecording to 
ceneral dawg, ame-more) or leds pleasingly formed, but the pro. 
ipristy Of their existence is not based on their pleasing appem © 
panes, but on the purpose which they may serye,. This pleasing — 
effect only takes the leading place in free ornament. - i 
Js Cap with Sonsoles, ene eae ‘ ea PERE AES Vc. ‘ es a 
if the caps be|supported by congoles, these flank the jambs 
om either side, and the ears are then: best omitted. The conse — 
les project directly from the wall-face, or from a pilaster of 
equal breadth, which ay be flat, or be bordered bY an arechi-~ | 
trays moulding, Fig. 367. The width of this pilaster will be Be 
fixed by the fact that the console, to appear capable of gup- 
porting the cap, must have greater height “than breadth; the  .— 
higher it is the narrower™it may be, but the lower it is the 
broader it should be, The width of the pilaster must be deter © 
mined agecordingly,. but in normal cases will be narrower than ~ 
the architraye of the window. . If .the projection be broad in — 
Proportional ly low eonsoles, the architrayve of the window must | 
be made proportionally narrower, as in Fig. 367, since the ont. 
iré finish of the window would otherwise appeur too wide in ae 
proportion to the clead width of the WIA OW. oS fasta Met eee 
This. pllaster always reguirés gsomé projection from the wall- 9 - 
_iece and panél led ashlars may net therefore ebut.againgt i: 


4 a 

=~ haggle rs rp. 

eh BBE oy Oo 

abe sens a ¥tok see 
7 


¢'S 


ac: td 


above, especially in designing bay-windows, which require 


ows admit less light than rectangular ones of equal height, 


. windows are uswally rare-in brick buildings in the UV. St 


CHAP. 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS. ~ oO Bs As Let. 
but must be separated from it by a margin. If tne window has® 
a basé beneatn the sill the pilasters require separate bases. . 
The effect of the pilasters will vary in accordance with their 
sections, and whether they are behind the band of the archt= | 2° 
trave or'ih the same plane With it CLF one. desires” to eee ak 
the projection of the caps of the windows at each end, € cOR. 
soles may be placed directly above the jambs and the. e el .of. 3 
the window, é6nclosing the frieze between them, Fig. 366. PROy cs 
then take whe game breadth as the Siaaea and their prolece la. uf 
is determined by their section, | oe Kae 

The consoles themselves are either low and broad, as in Fig. oe 
366, 367, 368, 369, or are high and narrow, as in- Figs. 364, 
370, 371. Consoles resting on a base and support ing a sill Pele 
may be arranged as in Fig. 372, Tn, consoles under sills, a ie 
ference ig to be made whether they stand on thé afchitrave, or — 
under a pilaster, Figs.370, 371. <A further difference consist 
in their being upright as in Pigs. 366, 387, or. suspended as. Tas 
Figs, 368, 369, tf. e,, whether the eye about ‘which the volute is 
coiled is above or below. For pediment caps, narrow and high ~ 
consoles as in Pig. 364, are preferable to broad. and low ones, ee, 
which are more suitable for lighter caps and sills. eS ce fe 

Baleony consoles, two examples of which are given in Pico 
373, 374, generally require strong projection of pold eharact- 
ery ett 1 frequently necessary i Xe) arrange several consoles- Uke i 
one above another like corbels, each supporting the one next Fs 
strong supports, not for structural but esthetic reasons. oe 
Such corbel led . arrangements may be most simply profiled. by ‘pe 
ing’ allowed | te project slightly sidewise and strongly. in fronp. . 
Fig. 375; decorative forms may take the place of mouldings. 

For ordinary house construction, using cut stone, a horizon- 
tal window lintel ig most suitable for. practical and egthetic | om 
reasons. Even in brick construction, for which the. straight. > 
arch may be: uged, it is pbeteferahot to employ arched windows in” 
the construction of houses, at least not for living rooms, but 
for staircase halls; for practical reasons, since arched wind) 


and for eshhetic reasons, in order to give the house a ‘chaPad 
ter different from that of palaces and public buildings. One 
should algo be satisfied in housesconstruction with the modest 
artistic expédients: already described, and reserve richer and. 
bolder forms for public buildings and palaces. _ (Rectangular 


2 Windows of Public Buildings and Palaces. rs 
For the architectureof such windows, the determining cons&d- 
eration of first importance is that the 1 ee SR general 1y ot 


ay 
w ‘ Wea baie Pao 
: al wer 


b 


' 
‘ 
; y 7 eee Mae ke 
%4 a wae } ‘ 


CHAP. 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS. E.A. 128. 
larger and light roomg of greater depth than in houses, and tR 
the external walls are thicker. The windows therefore require © 
greater width and height, their jambs are wider, and their cern ~ 
tres are farther apart. From their requirements, these ‘build- — 
ings are on a largerscale, more solid and massive than houses, 
and thereforerequire bolder artistic expedients. The phat 
width of the windows is first, since this has a decided effect . 
If the windows are rectangular, careful attention must be paid — 
to relieving the lintel of load, and it must have a greater mee 

—_height than in houses, to not break at its centre. In simple — 
ashlar masonry, the lintel will be a single block, and to re- | 
lieve it, the stones above it must be supported by corbelling 
and radial jointing, Fig. 376. If jambs are used, it may uae 
pen that a frieze ts formed below or above the srchitrave moul 
dingas at a or b, Fig. 376...” A: corres ponding case is when the 
lintel of the window forms a complete entablature supported. by 
pilasters, which also project from the wall- «surface, Fig. 377. — 
This entablature has its’ crowning eornice with or. without pedics 


3 : 
ment: a separate archi trave, composed of two jambs and a Ttat- | 
el, may enclose the- opening. If the pilasters be replaced a) ae me 
colums, we Obtain the canopied window, such & favorite in the © 
High. Renaissance, with all its. consequences, such as the ped- | 


estal, perforated window parapet, ets. . 
tecture requires either a bold. receggion of. the. gtories’ BO: “per 
mit the columns and their pedestals to stand free in. front of 
the face of the wall, or the pedestals of the columns must a- 
gain be supported by. columns, consoles or caryatids. — This win 
dow motive may also be developed into complete bay-windows, ae 
riched by doubling the columns, by the aid of pilasters, or 
may be changed into the frequently employed loggia motive poe 
introduction of archés over pilasters or. columns. . _ he 
The arched window is developed most simply from. ashlar cena 
struction. Italian palace architecture developed the arched — | 
window in the most complete manner; arches are absolutely Peat 
quired by the great width of. the window, — Its. form results 
from the estructural principle, either a special stone archt: | 
trays b6ing formed, projecting from the wall- face, and which | 
may b@ crowned by an entablature and pediment ‘ora circular 79 
eap, or the. arehtvolt moulding is wrought) on the ashlars then. f 
selves. If the window is so large that the glass requires” in- § 
termediate divisions, these are provided by the use of emall Fe 
- colums or pilasters, which limit the openings in the window, p- 
the motive of the windows of the early Florentine palaces; ther. 
gmail columns are covered by a horizontal lintel cr. spanned by — 
arches, the tympanum above them being perforated, s0 that a 
ane AS window preceny. is eee ae with the game meaning: as 


, euaethbdibey * a 
ne wae 2 " ee . RS 


Pes: a pry 


yay 


CHAP. 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS. ~ BO pee. 


that of the médiatval. If the window consists of. three divis-- 


ions, {t naturally results, if no horizontal ‘lintel is used, 
that the middle part ig made as high as. possible, and the span. 
drels are filled by circles, Fig.378 a. In casé of a Borst. 
tal lintel, a large circle in the centre with 2 smaller ate 
each side is an appropriate arrangement, Fig. S78 be es 


A horiZontal lintel, Fig. 378 b, does not generally look walt. 


if the tympanum of the window is filled. by ctreles or by other 


closed figures, as the tangency ef a complete circle and a 


straight line is not so good esthetically, as if it were tang-— 


ent to one or more curved lines. One of the best proportions | 
for windows of three divisions is obtained by dividing the oo. 
diameter into three equal parts, describing small circles on 
1-3 the diameter next each springing, then drawing a large cir 
cle between them and the semicircle, letting the semicircles 


of ach division of the window be tangent to these three ae 


cles, Fig . 378 c. +The sprining point is bhovahy lowered and 
the upper aracery gains in importance. — _ Ro ) 
Anbther motive for dividing windows in. two. or Sicha. parts 


only applicable to rectangular windows, is to. palce SePtsontal 


eZ) 
<i a 


lintels above the window jambs, forming transom lights above” 
them by means of short pilasters also connected “bY: horizontal 


lintels, Fig.379 a. This arrangement is particularly justifia 
ble when the trans ons are fixed, only the lower portion of the — 
window being opened, The transom bar mugt then be moulded to © 
form a Wash. The central vertical niullion. may then bs. treated — 
aS a supporting pilaster. In windows of: this kind containing — 
three divisions, the central transom bar may be omitted, mak-— 
ing the central window higher than the side windows. — ‘The aif- 


ferent mullions may likewise support circles and semicircles, - 


| Fig. S70 RL ce ee ee ee 


3. Tie Church Window 200, {x Les aie nea 


The churchi window falls outside the: Vines, of ordinary Sone 
ee ene both from its considerable dimensions, and @spectak — 


“ly from its height, as well as by itsppurpose of lighting the 


ouse of Cod, and one must avoid everything of a secular char- © 


“acter: in its. appearance, as well as all decorative expedients, — 
tending to recall the egnstruction of houses and palaces. The © 
considerable thickness of the walls afford broad jambs, usual- 
ly splayed with or without mouldings. If the windows are not — 
‘simple openings between piers-or columns supporting entablat- 
ures, but are spanned by. arches, all the forms. of arches perm- 


issible in secular architecture are to ‘be @xcluded with. tebe aie 


ception of the indispensable gemiciretlar and pointed arch, 


nea {f slightly pointed or depressed-pointed,.1is always. ‘ap: 


propriate in. church architecture, unless forms: ‘of. classic. ‘Paes 


i ay es sf tee 
ma Ji Leathe 2 ‘ sh) : eer eee at 
a cae fas : PREY gi a 
“4 * r ; a \ iB ol pe are ta ae sam 
YY ee eee ee ee, 4 ee OF Ber Ae ole oe Seat we 


ae ee eee LP aaa eae ee or ee 


CHAP, 16. OPENINGS IN WALLS, De RAL eT aoa 
temples are wilfully introduced,. will always return to the ~ 
forms introduced by the Middle Agee more than secular archit-. 
ecturé, assuming that the structural principle is to govern, | 
On esthetic grounds, | the pointed arch retains its superiority 
over tne circular arch if properly used. Thus in a. group of a 
three chureh entrances or windows, a pointed arch between two _ 
semicircular ones” ‘eives: By more varied appearance than three* 
semicircular arches. In using the pointed arch,’ ‘We are noti <, 
Obliged to accept all the consequences regulting phere dro tes 
Gothic, If we do desire to build exactly in Gothic, but to Tan. 
tionally deduce architectural forms from structural and esthet — 
ical requirements, in many questions of euurch architecture we ~ 
shall still touch upon the Gothic style, put. ‘must carefully an 
void everytding specific to that style, and wien may as welt iss 
OF: oy en better be. replaced by other. forms. oe ee ORS 
4. The Wheel Window. 6 eS ea ae 
We can never exclude the wheel window from church arontaedk 
, UP Bei It always - ‘remains. the. form of window most pleasing and? .5 
most suitable for certain purposes. If the wheel window be 
not divided byuan adron frame-work. for the glazing, ‘put by ston 
work, one should always” recur to motives common in the Middle 
Ages, and\eitner arrange around a centre radial mulifons, 9 a 
whose outer ends are connected | ‘by arches in any way, or a syst. 
em of perforated | slabs, in which the detail forns specifically — 
belonging to Cothic and somanes que should. be very carefully a= | 
voided. A circle is a general. form and always required in ar- 
coitecture, but the foils and cusps of Gothic tracery are spe- 
Cifie and no longer. necessary in church architecture, A scrol 
work of plant stems may be used as a motive for the tracery of — 
chureh windows With the jcfnts horizontal, or arranged in ac fee 
cordance with principles of arched construction. — In. this w Ye 
tracery may ve invented, whose form entirely corres ‘ponds tice ee 
the principle of the Renaissance style, while its) construction — 
and-mould ing. are in accordance wheh tae mediaeval principle. 
(Fig. 360.000 | dort te in a, aes Goer an | 
 & Window Weacenys : SB: eer ee eR a See ee 
Vertical divisions of Pradowe: may form a ‘system ‘ot. ‘mullions— 
like those of mediaeval tracery, or a system of perforated ecE 
izontal slabs of stone placed one above another, In- this case 
also, the forn- principle of the Renaissance admits ‘of the most - 
varied forms, seroll-work, tapesyry patterns, the use of fig-— 
“ure, plane, ‘and ornamental ‘decorations of all kinds. ‘The mouk- 
dings are. similar in principle to thos e of mediaeval atyles,— : 
ey 6n admitting: a freer treatment. <A freer. form of: patterns of | 
window tracery ig suitable for the Christian church, a more” 
strictly geometrical ong for the synagogue, without. tpe neces- 


s: y ‘ ta Oe gh ‘ 

t e » yp iv ‘ 4 oh m4 
my ‘ 4 * 
t rine © Sebi ahe. 

4 i e " a " + rk : ae fy 
; Fp. ote deeb > Pee oh . F tar yet + > A Wei! Maeatts ¢ 14 
SRA tied sLIF AK eo A? Uae Wenighrts te . ERE | Pay ree en ee ernwe ‘ i ie RP ; * 

Pal SA ea ee 4 ’ ’ 


Par iChame he 
} . 


a 
4 


ie eT eS See, ea 


tae roof- cornice or its entablature. . 


In the simplest form, the. ‘door is merely enclosed by an. arehi- » 


CHAP, 18... OPENINGS IN WALLS... - pi VES aie 131. 
sity of borrowing from the Moorish style. After tne clapale 
metnod, it is possible to divide windowsyby placing pilasters’ 
above each other, supporting horizontal intermediate cornices | 
and connected by arches, Fig.381, These cornices require a 
wash on top, The lower part of the ehureh window best stands: 
on a splay, Fig.382, witich carries off the water Ces ends wita 
a drip moulding to keep. the water off the wall. Ue 

6. Transom Windows and Skylights.) i): eo Le 

Smal] windows frequently serve to light upper gal lecien! ‘of. : 
halls as well as the ceiling. If they are not windows of. eran | 
nary and norma! form, they may take different. forms, | 3s permit | 
ted by the external architecture, circular Or: oblong, with. an- 
gles cut off, semicircular ; ebene They. are always gubordinate | 
and are preferably treated in accordance with the arrangement | 
of the facade. They are sometimes. kaon ae the LTE eRe Seon e 


7. and 8. ‘Doors and Gateways. = =. | eee ee 
For doors and gateways ef rooms, public ‘buildings, palaces | Ns 
and churches, the. game is- applicable, as. for. openings | in walls | 
in géneral, and a. portion of that stated in regard to windows, © 


trave, either with jambs and a lintel projectin from the wall | 
face, or by mouldings receding behind the: wall-face. and wrough — 
on the ashlars. The architraye should be ane below ae 


or “returned around ae ee 
The section of the. architrave should have. 
clear width of the doorway, _ 
with their massive bossed eentare, the. breadth: 7eh the 
trave is about 1-2 that. of the door. ‘The: doorway will 
weakly or ce protected, according to ang h 


y 
siye san ftions for. ‘enrieiine: chia: motive. are; cons es 
the cap, pilasters on which rest the. consoles, a Sateen and’. 
attic story or transom window above the. os tbe additions which — 
admit of the most manifold variations of form, according te 
spScial circumstances ee oe ee 

2. The architraye of. the door to ‘flanked. by pilasters or. 
columns supporting an éntablature. The pilasters or columhs ~ 
may be with or without pedestals, may be arranged ine pe IN By 


CHAP. 18. OPENINGS DY WALLS ed Be AG ASE 
the entablature may be crowned by a pediment, or may forma 
balcony. 

Doors and windows, covered by arches, admit of a series of 
motives, from the simplést to the richest, with enrichments by 
tne expedéents already mentioned, especially by making the 
springing blocks and keystones prominent. If panelled ashlars 
be added, as in many palaces, or three gateways are connected 
in a group, the richest forms are produced, like thos@ invent- 
ed by the Italian Renaissance in palaces, gates Of forti fica- 
tions and cities, and also those erected in modern times. The 
last motive of the triumphal areh may be varied in different 
Ways, according to whether the openings are of @qual width or 
the middle one is widest, or whether coupled pilasters or col- 
umis, with or without pedestals, are uséd, and from this by 
placing a sécond one over the first, was derived the motive of 
a two-story triumphal arch used in many Renaissance ¢hurchés. 
The motive of the triumphal arch is also the one best suited 
for magnificent city gates and will so remain, since the cent- 
ral opening of wider span for carriages, and the narrower side 
openings for persons on foot, can scarcely be more properly 
combined tin a group than in this way. By tne addition of an 
attic, a crowning group of figures, and especially of sculptu 
red decorations, or by flanking it with two successive towers, 
the motive of the triumphal arch forms a decorative architect- 
ural work of the first rank, \which may as well be employed &3e 
a motive for a city gate or the portal of a bridge ‘as for the 
facades of a church. 

In houses, palaces or public buildings, where the plan perm- 
ne a small porch should be arranged before the entrance door 

Fig.383 a, b, or @ projecting porch is constructéd, which sup- 
ports a balcony or terrace. Both arrangements admit of ths 
most varied forms, according to their connection with the oth- 
er architecture. Such porches are much used at principal en- 
traness of churches andiare often indispensable for protection 
from wind and weather. They are then placed between two tow- 
ers, form the lower story of a tower, or projsct from the fac- 
ade. On account of the bhiekness of the walls, the portals of 
churchés always have very wide jambs, and should always more 
or less closely approximate Romanesque church portals in exter 
nal form, yet avoiding all that could recall these. This re- 
sults from the givsn conditions that lead to like results in 
similar conditions. 

8. Portals of Tunné1e,» Gateway Brddges, Culverts, etc. 

All cpenings in walis, comprised under this, heading, serve 
purely material needg and usually require but-& small amount 
of decoratti entirely dé@pendsnt on the purpose of the struc- 


ture 


——————— Ar. ee UP IN VGo IN WALLS. =. HE. WRI igs 1 ai 
Py. | ture. Inia city, tunnels) bridges and fortifications require 
my greater expenditure for architectural purposes than in a wild 
a4 mountain solitude, but even tne least important of such neces. 

sary buildings. must fulfil their purpose in the most complete 
Way, and a. form must be given them better than oie: cede. 
ments Of absolute necessity, — Rae eis 

Tunnels for railways, canals or other. highways, will always. 

be located where is to be found atone suitable for structural f 
purposes..’ :They are openings requiring enclosure, and being a 
most always arched, this arch of itself forms the: ena bonare. 
Rusticated: ashlars, bold archivolt mouldings, a prominence of 
the springing and keystones of ‘the arch, will form the most. 
natural expedients for their decoration. Facades ‘aPe gometi- 
més buflt in front of tunnels, which may be crowned by a cor. 
nice with battlements or a parapet flanked by angle towers and 
decorated by shields of arms and ‘inscribed, tablets. All super 
fluous decoration is« usually to be. avoided, if not: tin a ‘ehly 
or exposed to the view of persons on foot. ‘Phe time for ‘obser 
vying the architecture Of a. tunnel while travelling by rail ts 
usually go brief, and the change of impressions so. rapid, ‘that 
the portal of the tunnel is only momentaridy geen and ita fo rs” 
ig quickly forgotten. | Tt igs” somewhat different ay a” gtrest e 
tends along the railway, so that persons on foot “have time and 
Opportunity for examining the structure. POC ae eae 
It. is generally advisable din. engineering works and. fortifica 
tions, for economy, to make extensive use of Pock- faced ashlar J 
masonry. ‘Such atructures derive thence a. character ef earnest 
néss and strength. | AIL petty. formsare entirely forbidden in 
this case@ as they do. ‘not. harmonize. with the character of. ‘these 
usually massive structures, — Battlementa. are always suitable i 
for crowning walls, because a simple and effective motive. — 
For projections of. cornices, massive corbels, eorbellings- 1 
those under. _bay-windows, ‘and. similar. simple expedienta aregood 

Embrasures, openings for ventilation, and gimilar. subordina® 

openings in walla, ‘openings. for discharge of Water, etc., 2Po_ 
best left simple, as required by their purpose, ‘without ‘furtas 
development. It is natural for Openings in walls” to. be treat- 
ed in accordance: with their importance and location. — “The more 
subordinate, the less stress should «be laid on making their. 
forms more élaborate than required by the material neéd, “avota 
ing all that might appear pretentious. Solidity of the magon- 
ry and careful execution must be the principal meang_ for deter 
mining the appearance of the building. The Barocco etyle tad= 
eed went 80 far as to decorate the enbrasures of ‘fortifica- — 
‘Fons, one (of man y errors that we must Peuttaca peer A 


at 


CHAP. 17. FLOORS. B.A. 134. 
Chapter 17. Fleoors.and Pavements. 
1. Stone Pay ements. : 

Stone pavements for streets, squares, courtyards, etc., are 
either composad of specially prepared paving stones, Of stones 
from rivers, or of quarried stone. Such pavements are now se 
dom uséd, that require decorative treatment, but when these 
are desired, stones. of two colors are used to form simple en- 
closed panels, and they must evidently be of equal hardness. 
Such pavements were formerly composed ef stones of different 
shapé@s, square, oblong, ete., and an example is found on the 
Catnédral hill at Prieste, Fiz. 364, and another at Rome. 

Pleasing pavements have been constructed in various places 
with river stones and quarried stones, which must have approx 
imately equal size. Square panels are usually formed with thé 
larger stones, their diagonals being also indicated, or oblong 
panels are filled with closely set stones. If the river stoné 
are long and elliptical, they are usually arranged in *varley 
éar* bond. Separate figures may be formed of small stones in 
mosaic-like patterns. Fine @xamples of such pavements are to 
be found in Freiburg-tn-Baden, in the greatest vaniety of pat 
terns, were carefully constructéd. with river stones, and with 
86paraté mosaic-like figures. 

2 Floors of Stone Slabs. 

The simplest kind, also used for pavements of entire éitles! 
is that composed of stone blocks, like antique strest paveme 
The polygonal pavements of Florence are imposing, with their. 
very large and carefully laid stone slabs and blocks. Square 
Slabs are much used for covering floors of churchés, vestibu- 
les, corridors and passages, courtyards, ete. <A favorite meth 
od ig to use differently colored kinds of marbles, producing 
mosaic-liké patterns. <A specimen of ancisnt stone intarsia | 
from St.Cereon in Cologne i's composed of glabs of Rhenish roof 
ing slate, into which are cemented figures of tufa;: a sécond 
one at the same® place consists ofslabs of white sandstone, ine 
to which are regularly inlaid figures of red and green porphy-, 
ry. Intarsia and mosaic floors may represent geometrical or 
ornamenta] tapestry patterns, or even figure compositions as 
in many Pompeian houses and in the Cathedral at Stena. 

3. Floors of Bricks and Tiles. 7 

Ordinary brick paving ts always laid in regular bond, and 
the decorative bonds are te be recommended for bricks set Cd ge. 
wise, producing patterns of ail kinds. If it be desirable to | 
employ colored bricks, they must not be Ssnamelled, but must pe 
self-coldored to retain their appearance after use and to prey 4 
ent slipping. It is permissible and also proper to make brick 
pavements of moulded blocks of forms suited ae a mosaic syst enj 
Especially those wit on nec te 3 . 


CHAP. 17. FLOORS. BA. 135. 
Especially tnose with connected figure elements,to accent the 
solidity. Artifiectal stone may also be uséd instead of bricks 
if composed of very hard materials. These are used in the 
form of small cubes or triangular prigms, which compose the 
most varied ‘geometrical patterns. Either flat pressed, raised 
or: sunken tiles are employed for tile floors. The first my 
have the pattern burnt on in different colors as in Mettlach 
tiles. The patterns always ‘form a tapestry-like network in 
eitner flat or pressed tiles, whose form dé@pénds on the s%amp 
used for impressihg hem. The Same laws are applicable to ti- 
les set in walls, except that glazed or vitrified tiles should 
be used, which are less suitable for Ray onen te on accoung of. 
danger of slipping, 

4. BPloors of Artificial Stone, ale | 

Concrete floors are composed cf beton, cement, or plaster of | 
paris, laid on an under layer: of bricks, A pattern may be pre 
duced by mixing different colors with the mortar. Avery suit 
able treatment is that emp lo yed in the Library of St. Lorenzo 
at Florence, where the forms of tne floor, are directly bas od 
on those of the ceiling. 

5. _ Wooden Floors. 

The only wooden floors mentioned here will be those of par- 
quetry. They are either composed: of matched pieces of wood, 
or are veneered, They are always wood mosaics or intargiaa, 
which determines their: form and prescrides their limitations. 
The mosaic system is espectaliy suitable for forms of veneered 
floors, the ‘separate elements being eut from blocks of corrss-_ 
ponding créss sections. (Much used in tne U.S. Either, }. 
composé. of solid blocks tongued and groovéd together;” 2, of 
thin blocks glued on canvas backing; 3, composed of end -wood | 
blocks sonneeted by lead tongues and hetc in squares), } 


‘Chapter 18. Treatment of Buildings in Stories. 
l. Height and Character of the Stories. “5 
The heigats of the stories are determined by the heights of 
the Yooms, and these depend on their areas. An old rule eines 
as.a basis, that the height of a roomshould equal 2-3 to 3-4 
its width; or itjl-3' sum of length and bread ta; or the a Wells 
diagonal of its plan. . oF piahel 
(Durand gives the following in his Lecons: @Archivectare, 
Il; Ceiling horizontal. ERS 
' Height equal depth if Yength be greater than depth. 
Height less than depth if this equals the length. 
2. For arched or vaulted ceilings. © 
Height equal to ] 1-4 deptna, if length exceeds depth. 7 
Height equal depth hae PEL leh Lane! Sie or circular een 
ty Se Bee ate Bs acca ; ae :  ialaan 


ied 


CHAP. 18. ‘BULLDINGS [N STORIES, BE. A. 136. 

These proportions must be reduced for very large roong.. 

Fergusson gives the following- rule in his Historycof Mrenit 
eeture Height equal to the ein root of fonere ‘plus hald 
the d ent.k § 
_ Proportions chiefly Aedeuar on purpoge of the Poon, atyle of 
architecture, importance of the structure Op) eke. aes present ~ 
tendency in the DU. 8.5 (ig. t0 make heights of rooms less than for 
merly, becausé more effectively and economically warmed and — 


ventilated, and a larger rental can be obtained | for a. given las 
rea of ground and expendituse for building, ete. Rooms eho 


never be less than 6 ft. high in the clear, begat about 0 fee 
for ordinaryccottages, 12 or more for better houses). Sas oot 

Tae“external character of the ‘stories, their Pr DOB ey. cand 5: 
their height, are always intimately connected. The cellar gto 


ae 


ry of houses of publie buildings. will always be subordinate, 3 


yen if. containing living rooms. Its height does not exceed — 
that of the tase of the building, and it Sukserl a plain and 
massiye treatment. 


The basement may have a. different purpose. and ay ceeded: by 


shops in city houses, which require the widest show. windows: 


possible, or wy modest dwellings. It is very commonly the Pe 


principal story of villas, eontaining the rooms for. social haat 
poses, the upper story being occupied by ded-rooms,_ nursery, 


rooms for geusts, etc. — The mop eoent 1a epen’ the most bli i 
decorated story, ae 

The first story is general ly the ‘prigerel story or velle 1a 
tage, both in houses for. renting as well as in: palaces: and ‘pub 
lic but ldings, and its. external appearance mug t- ‘therefore exe 


press this in itg architecture, — It will]. therefore be mors 
richly and elegantly treated while the basement ABS gimple and— 


massive, Ifa meZZanine story be used, it must be. tees 


with discretion, and be similar to the. first story, 3 
A second or third story is always subordinate. In. large hou 
sés for renting, these stories perhaps contain two or three 


separate flats, While the princtpal story. contains only a a 


gle dwelling of high character. The second and third stories | 
are accordingly to be more simply treated. a ae 
An uppermost story, which contrasts with the basement | ‘tye 


- buildings of three oy more stories, should in very many cases” 


be formed like a broad band,. connsctéed with the main eornice, 


and terminating the building at top in a& characteristic eee | 


Since it usually appears too low and. light dn comparison hose 
tne heavy massescof the lower story, it should also be more 
lightly and decoratively treated, and it maybe ‘frequent Ly ‘cen. 
nected with dormer windows and crowning gables. To co nsct to. 
gether the. windows of one upper siete wa Ppaveie” nie os) 


‘with arcades . | | es See se 


: 7 Se 
tA 34 3 


Ob sh; : 
* 
7 
re 
i” ’ 
> stil 
d 
os 
s 
dele 
ae) 
’ 
fi 
{ 


; aa a ait 


rip CHAP. ‘18. BUILDINGS: IN. STORIES. ( saeoiaeh 
with &i gunes, arcades, 6tc., are. arranged. = 
An attic may be placed abov © the principal cornice Nentee Des 
which is concealed a story in the roof, it may be characteriza 
by dormer windows, or a so-called mansard roof may be built. — 
In tare cases, — the upper storyeot a house of several stories 
is the principal story, as in many Italian etties, wnere the 
belle hee ts planed: at hig on account ae ‘the : rresh air and 


a Water: ables, 
Water Mab lee 


as the: ope of the boas of te 


has a ‘browning upper member Uae ue 
385° ¢: “its upper Burface is inclined, and its. 
inclined oe. Te 368 a. aes poh Pitts 


| member, may be. “changed in 

base proper, ecis 
internal requirements, 
ee 343,348, 350. 


wiadoie te ‘Tt re not possnie! to ‘go. Livia. he F siose vaya ‘of. Be 
forming the. ‘bas es of buildings. There. sometimes exist KM 
it'les in the ground, peculiar dispositions of plan, ¢ 2 
of: base with princtpal entrance, with terraces: or oxternal ee 


steps 


CHAP. ° ies ‘BUILDINGS: IN STORIZS. E ve 138, 
steps, which eeds tocspecial arrangements. “projections of 
the masonry, columns, pilasters, with or without pedestals, in 
fluence the form of thé base, together with ‘pas ticatedemasonry 
which is mueh used for the base; further, cellar and sub- -celle 
windows, é@tc., windows of ehureh erypts, etc 188 W | 
always be. modified according to the form, arra 
port tons of the wind ows | of the epioestpes)s hort 


the. ‘airangencnt of shone, ‘whose 1 
low base penee Uebel Lei 


course, and he upper 
same way. ; 


the lower part of iby sou by their projecti 
ger. string courgés, which separate the principa 

that next below, “usually eonsist of a. tetas 
and. upper. and lower mouldings, al 
will appear heavier or RNA he, 


strengthened By the introduction of Paonii ig 
“must always have a wash to lead off. the Rah ee pak 
of Sone which the effective height of ne ougse ma 


tary Of St. Mark at Venice; 1-9 in Bevilacqua. Palace, Verona. 


” CHAP. 18. ; 
reduced. In richer des 
bed: from the wall b 


e ‘etbing woure 
rape I ies 
Set the other stor mu: 
prominent. nA ‘be profile nt 
Sither by- Anereasing | the upper 
the height of the facia i 
or cove, or by forming ) Bt Cc 
inert. from proper. elementary forms 1 
‘These atring courses” way. also ‘be ec 
Rey oe decorate. separate ‘parts ef string 
Vente: Of antique architecture would not t ‘ ait SPOR .cOn : 
stPuction ang for houses on ‘account ¢f the expe 4 ee 
sential that it: should» Look: ‘well. without” ‘decora iY i 
iss. his luxury may. ‘be allowed “in public: buildings, nonce 
“and. churches, and. ane tape stress ae Bb ites | oe 
fact, that these o ‘ 


an ana Pienatseagee - asm 
ortions, strong light, 
ces hl conditions entin 

~Corniees, «9.34 oe : 3 Paes 

The. main cornice hae. the. ma erial purpose of protecting mas- 
onry from rain as much as possible, ahd of Peccivin u ne 
as “ell as the ideal one of terminating ‘and- erownin. 
of the building. The height of the cornice epend 
éct to be produced and its. projection, or how far th 
employed may freely project. The higher. the cor ic the 
er will the building appear in Proportion, and the owe 
the higher the building will seem to be, The. fewer h 
Of stories -in 3 building, the less the necessity f 
iec@ to appear high. The eornices: of low building Nhould. 
be proportionally high, and of high. ones, low. ‘The following 
Italian Renaissance buildings may serve as: guides. The height 
Of the cornice without. frieze, measured from. ‘bottom of loWest 

bo top of highest member, is as follows, in termg of the total 
height of the building. _ Villa Farnesina, I- -2£0; Pandolphini_ oe 
Palace, 1-16; Gondt Palace, 1-18. The ‘entire @ntablature, ins” 
elading frieze and archit rave. ie F 1-21 of. the total netght tn ae 
the Cancel laria, Rome; 1-16 in the Rucellai Palacé; 1- 8 in the. 
Villa Farnesina and Pandolphini. Palace; about BT 3 in. the 


‘th modern buildings of the Dresden school, the cornicé, in- 
cluding frieze and. TPandt f paw Bw a i ee a ee 


‘ 
\ 
. 
ye 
, 
i> May 
J , 
i 
4 \ 
iy 
‘ ' 
) j - ‘ 
. 
5 
j 
' 
a 
« 
' 
y k 
Aa 
i 
4 
i 
y 
‘ NI 1 
+ 
ut 
ze g , 
\ ' 
t ta 
: . 


i 
i MEA ye sate Ae te 


4 
Le 


ie 


CHAP. 18. BUILDINGS IN STORIES. as ee Zz ae 140. 


height of Sure ias. or about 1-30 to | -40, Nogt Cheat frieze and 
architrare. Other schools of Architecture employ bolder corni. 


eés; those of the Dresden school have an elégant -and refined. 
effect without appearing too. small. ~Gnauth obtained good pro- 
portions in two palaces at ‘Stuttgard with 1- 10 to 1- 12: inelu- 
give of frieze and architrave, cr 1-25 to 1-27. without ‘then. 


(A common Americaa rule ¢or 1 or 2 story buildings is to make, 
total height of ehtablature 1-12 of height of tts” ‘top fron Parca 


ground level, but this’ fa7 too much for: taller buildings. ) No® 
fixed normal eee for eteb a of cornices bie only. 


as well asthe Pointy of radon. they 
BPs feeling | in each case, 


struction. 
388, 


Gere one is. aie 
as it projects)- 


the: following oalict ides: ane ped.) 
& smal) ‘projection: By ai: grea tor’ poy ooo 
be hollowed-out as ‘much as pos a ay tt 
‘with both increase in. proj ecti 7 
1 ae a larger. cornice is to ‘be 


stone, attention must be paid Panetta! f the overhang- 


ing parts. with those bullg- into the wall, nd it ma 
that theccornice projects as far ‘pehind t he face of th 
as in front of it, when all the dlocks are fastens 
by clamps, Fig. 389, or at! least enoughyto make the 
shaded portion in Fig. 390 greater than ‘that. at the part not 
shaded. From this discussion it results” that. > co 


wall in form of an attic is- preferable, to. bring | the centre: of. 


once of toe 


a : 


gravity of the wafnice as near as possiole ‘to. the. axis. “Of: ghia ss 


wall. ‘That it is alse desirable to lighten. the cornice as 


much as possible by modillions, dentils and ornamented mould-— 


ings. But it is to be noted that the modillions must not be 


cut from the same block as the geison, but: separately arranged 


as the geison would otherwise be too heavy and the purpose of 


the modillions. entirely lost. Thug the mutules and their. gut. | 


tac of the Doric style are. obj ect tonable 28 at otherwise, 
and it : 


--hellcewed cut on its und or side to. form a Water arip. 


CHAP, 18. BUILDINGS IN STORIES. es, eee 141. 

and it would be better to treat the under aide of tne casa! 
with sunken coffers. Dentils, by which cornices are made Ligh 
ter and more animated, are useless when ‘their projection far 
slight, and are therefore best. Sm e hed bees conde -courses or. 
cornices of small projection, ~ 7 ei 

In its simplest form, a cornice now  equsiees: of three. fe 
ts; tne strongly projecting geison, the supporting 1 
ers, and the crowning upper members, Pig gol. 


in, Grectan ee ea the corona. also forms” a eat et, 


er forms, weaker members. are inserted between ‘the 
gelson. ... Roe pet 

By our method of working ‘all, cut stone {Tom 
blocks, it is absolutely necessary to” Préetain base 
joing af close beneath the ae” Pees 


an & pte - 
ee ae 


ay irs 


ese course. vin the Picnest oeiiees a gem, 
> placed beneath this” row of mate on pe 
ne Wita its peer and lower menbers.— ks Bia ee 


ATL modern cornices. are merely. vantetions: of this motivs,al- — 
Uheaay fixed by the classic. and Renaissance styl 3 “the: quest = 
ion is then whether one will. adhere more or. less closely to. 

Grecian, Roman or ‘Renaigsance architecture; whetner one. will 

strictly. retain. the columnar orders or not, and whether ‘the = 
corntes shail be ornamented or not, and in what way. The atch 
he Pay & ay be mad. - Rare oe ifacadean, yee ne Lea ee built see 


high 
heal” 


hy 


4 


it, FPig.385 a, db. [t will then be preferable to sO adjus 


“height of the architraye Os; the. lower. Peres 


them the more boldly where they were justifiable. 


iron, that support tne aPchitrave | or. ‘tas floor; but) to. appear 


CHAP, 8/71 6, BUILDINGS IN STORIES. — es os A. 142. 
require the stonés to possess a certain ch cokeoe 
d. Interruptions of Cornices. BSE SAC 2 

~ peculiar eonflict: aréses. if the. centre: or. end portions. of 
a facade in tnree divisions are made higher. — If the. eornice 
of the lower portions is carrisd across. tae. entire facade, a 
principal cornice will either be. partly usgd as. ast string - ecOure 
which igs unseemly; or the higher part. must be made to. project” 
sufficiently for the cornice of the lower part to. abut. against 


cis that a portion of the cornice of the: lower part. of the. 


building may be changed to a string-course for the higne ‘parp 


Fig.395 c. Or the string course of the highée portion is bro- — 
ken around and unites with the. cornice en & the lower one pe 


395 d. To let the cornice of the lower part simply abut a- 


3 gainst the projection of the hnigner part, as in Grecian arehi- — 
tecture and as mere in our era he the advocates of this i Shee 


arelecure: wien at lesa: be “80 arranged, 


jeeting band extends around the higher ‘part to’ presery: 
uous: lines ate ‘to ee eonnect the anes fe SBE 


soeteus, thug fornlae bribes happier | 
ing from base to cornice, are used in this way. | 


powerful effect. may be. thus. ‘produced, tae Frangeamt cen 
an Dh aeatebes igs Saaeieaniee. it is always 1 more il Fie Sioe 


er stop ageing a vertical: Dorel anne or a iroken around 
tuem. Even Gothic church architecture made vertical lines | dom 
inant, but never suppressed horizontal diviatons, and 


4, Galleries, Balconies, Verandans, Bay-win ow: 

es oe Galleries, Balconies, Verandahs. es a 

| ie ee eee intended for churches or for secular purposes 
frequently have galleries on one or more. sides, When narrow, 
these may be. formed by eorbel ling out. beams OF gtone, wood . Bar ae 


strong, they require to be supported by conoles, eoreeisy: See 
Galleries ry es SEN 


\ ie 4 e:) an ey - 
5 4 ; tee ‘ ‘ t $ * - 
ees ee oe Sees 
a U4 Venera 5 we - on he oe 


hath 


yt 
j 
a - 
i 
Pee re. 
' 
noe 
= it 
ie 
i 
i 
¥ y 
vi o 
, 
\ 
- t 
{ 
t 
et 
i 
i ; 
a 
ry 4 ; 
\ ots 
Bie | 
i} 7 4) | 
Cha" 
+ ¥ 
; peut 
p { ¢ us 28 
7 we 
‘ ‘ x 
Me, 
Mer 
i 
14 
‘ 
t 
“ 
~ 
oy 4 ; 
"h ri: y 
+ "ey 
: 
4 
Ff 9 
& 
f 


“ment of fresh air and fine views may’ se 


dows. Ch construction as fi gate as podet bie! eed okra: 


en. or united by the ‘portico. 


ee it. 
og eee unnecessary weight a 
: pen balustrades of Racomnapil 3s on are. Proxarable 
Of stone or “masonry; — ht tron rods an : 
 balugtcades of stairs, must be ‘placed st ¢ : 
“a ehild’s: nead cannot. be passed through, so AEs ‘over | 2 in 
apart. — The height Of: the balustrade should seldom be | ess 
than 3 ft, also true of balustrades. in’ general, Pad 
“Ore balconies and: galleries ‘are. also constructed o 
slabs of stone let into angle- posts and eovered by 
‘eaps may have profiles like ‘those of Window: ae and should | 


CHAP, 18. BUILDINGS IN STORIES = EA, 143, - 
Galleries, several of which may be placed above each cther,are 
either vaulted or not, open towards the hall, and rest on ‘ares 
eades or colonnades. — ‘They have’ solid or perforated. balustra- 
des in front, and may be treated like a series of connected 
wind ows. @hese galleries become porticoes,: logglas and vyeran-_ 
dahs on the exterior of a building. Those intended. for. enjoy- 
comes cre ners a8 


wet) 28 public buildings. — af cor ered, 


ports and with numerous’ openings is therefore desirable, and 
tne general eharacter will ‘thereby be. determined, anc 


pleasantly contrast with the: more solid facad ne 


be Bay Windows and Scicontae. 


sosbatling out thewalls. — 
of cities and revel Praheionel sh: ers, 6tc 
They are always: ne Rocha, obtained 89 re} he 

consoles, © 


ie Tadeo 


be at the game neight. : 
Balustrades of penroraseu: evoke Kase are very pleasing aac 


- connection with decorations of wrought iron. — Sines the Po: 


ssance pertod, balustrades compoged of short, vase- like SEDs - 
ports have beén and will remain in use, Phe spaces. between - 


these may be filled with ornaments SOE wrought iron, which Dice 


duce a very good effect. Balustrades Ot bay-windows- of) living, 
rooms and. of halle of all kinds Bopha, OS solid. coe Atl is are 


oe 


nS 
q ’ z j 
. PAW, oe i 
' a5 era 
‘ ie. Ato oe 
y CRY ed 5 Pst ( 
bk ae) Aad 
i : f 


id 


ban odes a. or 


ey inclined and Rebtacntale | ein vel 
> eeltlings. One of the finest motive for t he 
7 stairs wae en. especial favorite in mediaeva 
ee MPS, and is that with steps supported by: smal 
es Tare If these are ehanzged into. tracery, the 

“nost var ted forms, Dnata Ace fF: small cpm 


CHAP, (T8. BUILDINGS IN STORTES. RA 144. 

- desired to perforate then, a solid panel mugt be placed. behind 
them Bay windows. have a pleasing sffect in connection Witaog: 
the entrance door, giving rise to many peculiar arrangements. 
Angles of corner House are especially favorable places for 
bay windows. |'Hence these windows may vary: grestly in form of 
ey bette aren Meee: -efreular, ae 
ae Stairs | ae ee 


be. omitted; they may be supported. ey eaite: ant 
or piers, which may ‘form. a. system ‘or ig te 
: and hand Pail enclose ene: stairs: on Map 


and also the newells, "agathat Which the hand 
aah Stairs with and without Carriages. 
‘te ane steps lie on. each otner ana guppo t ¢@a 
out a carriage, their ends or (suman TT 
panel. of very Varied forms. oF et 


‘ed in. steps on their 
inelined portions, ) oun ame r : 
more or leas. gui table, ace ae 10 Kearns ae tn 
_ugt rade. A moulded upper edg , edu 2 Mee 


earl architecture. ee ee. 


nt 


a 
CHAP. 18. - BUILDINGS IN sT0RteS, ee = A 145, 
Gs: RaieR ena dos: of Stairs. eve meh ak 

The balugtradés of stairs are of stone or. ‘iron: (or wood cre 
the U.S.). If made of stone, the hand Pail ig supported. oy 
balusters, though small columne ‘or pillars are also ere 
me perforatéd slabs are arranged, eitner. decorated by. free. cra 

ments or formed ag tracery in strictly geometrical patterns. 
Bédtek hae of icon cede iron are especially suitab a: wateh COR 


iron and bronze may Ae be used, ‘though: hak ri $1 
be employed for. balusters on account Kok aut re’ Dubey eunega | 
ee is $0 costly echt stone Oh EAB he kan : 


bat sah ide to be painted « or. gl lted on 4008 unt 
ant color. 
st tairs,— 
actual eee in wood. 

ae igs wooden stairs. — 


‘hand alls, and ‘the’ seers afford ‘opportunit 
varied treatment. Care must always be taken 
Rhamed join the newélls in a natal nd 
— newelle may support. a (gas poe ate 
Pecotatsve i ee | 


wuten they are used, With’ tt at 
cee a whieh oo are oe ec 


bed. Weonerait terminate in a ota dro 
ee Uanding | Slabs. uae 


ie de: of the adn: Blab, vs oa 
Shallow panels. Bre suitable, ; 


nh ours 8 Ss 
schools, theatres, concert alliage nas oetatn hem danger - | 
ous to weaken the landings. — ‘Therefore ‘this panel : 
carefully considered in é@ach epeetee case. 
den Winding Stat re. ie< ; ee ee 
“Phe ‘under sides of the steps of wikd tHe : ei : 
left flat, or gre dressed off to a holicdigals ‘surface, or a | 
vault is: construct ed bensath them, In the. ila case, aes 


shaped 


n 
. a 
’ r 
Nia tae 
a my : 
ray 
a | , 


er 
14 oe 
7) jae 


“P peunetions: 
‘towers: are either ‘detached, 


i mi s ees 
ployed eon signal bells, clocks, ete. , 
Packs, ete. Town halls. tn ‘particular 


a. for prisons, city gates, bee chates 


-butia ‘aingie. ene. 


form being decided by its. “purpose, and by the place at which - 


the lower Siary of the Sadan by af arch, above: cade 3 bole: | 


CHAP. 18. _ BULLDINGS IN STORIES. 5 “146. 
shaped prisms are formed, | whose edges are cydiided. grt nee 
surfaces may be decorated. by sunken panels. - In the’ second, the 
helicoidal surface. may be ornamented by panels, mouldings or 
ornaments, arranged with reference to a helical line, the deco 
ration may o¢e radially arranged, or a, combination of the two 
may be uséd. A vault beneath winding. atairs may be divided ain 
radial compartments, or may be an ascending, annular, helicoia 
a} vault, the last permitting pretty treatment. in brick con~ 
struct ion by the aid of decorative Bieiviae ge oct favorites oS 
in Dutch brick architecture. | : sare cee 


a 


oe 4 tracery, ete , 


. ed ee sf 
or for. elted ana ia a or Loe ‘oh: 


; sige oi different 


require a clock or bell: tower, towers are also f 
—Plans— of Roshan 8 
alse be circular or. BES gone, “wita any Sie 
it ig to be joined to the building. Detached towers are. ‘geld- 


on placed néar a building, except when ‘independent, ‘pub may. be 
sO arfanged as to be partially free, as when ‘connected. witha | 


' 1 fe i 
1 ° 
> 
1 i 
‘ 
ay it APL 
: i ; 
ee Nee ¥ 
- Ke 
An ae 
j } 
4 
T 
f ; ny, if 
i 
ai 


—..< MR NUR | BU ae ae, ei al —~ 206 em ei — aw | hay —~at, 


CHAP, 18. BUILDINGS IN. STORIES. ~~ Mo Ae (148. 

for striking the hour and a. room for a Watchman. — It also. hie: 

contains the city prison. Its form should therefore be varied — 

according to circumstances, but being a tewer for secular pare 

poses, all seclestastical charaeter ehould always - be avoided, 

‘This is true of towers of prisons, city gates, bridges, chat- 
eaux and fortresses... A fortress - like character ig more guita- — 

ble those, with decoration by battlements, ‘bays, and simil ; 
expedients for producing a nace icine effect. 4 

‘ord, Roots of Towers. ponies 


eg the roof; ‘towers. may have wooden roots, ete ne S: 

‘ roofs; these may terminate with domical, a6 
forms, or a crowning form: may be produced by ears : 
fhe treatment of the roofs of towers is in all case one 

: the most fruitful and welcome ‘probelms ter ane: 6p ALltect, 


, columa; 2, low open areates; 3, @ormer shew tas 4 

Masses at tne angles; 5, forms of gables; ue 
above each otner; 7, ‘the eof itself, “whetaer a a dome 

‘s a conical roof: 6, corbel led - -out bay windows, balconies 

at _ balustraded galleries; 9, ‘gargoyles, finials o1 ; 
| eo NOP: ee Phy ag other ornaments for 
 OPaiiis Ye! 


es re ae generally 0 } 
s etipeee of . buildings ‘as ee t 
visible outlines. Sound artis 
Greeks, no less than mediaeva 
stress on tae treatment of tne I 8 
to its forms Ls Renaiggance masters, with th 
domed roofs o ehurehes, and this. tendency 
ig now the oe of many architects, to a low 
possidle part in tne effect. of. the ‘building b: conceal tl 
behind an attie, or by making ee sO flat that it is in: 
A Pational development ef the Proof is ‘missed! ss 
where, wood is not abundant and snow is hardlyes e¢ . 
flat Toofs are not. only appropriate ‘but. actually Pequired by 
economy. It is otherwise in the Norta eer 2 DU: t 
and. apres Tae northern nature cee 


country: wile its capeste., cities, one ‘geen to. have been. burn- 

ed if the buildings were witnout their yery effective roots, 
with all their. aecaseories Of. dormer windows, ehimneys, Bs ee 
Care must then be taken that roofs are artistically ye eae 
as to inne the general effect and not dts haRe it it shoud 


a mak 
Ae "te yi NYS Perea ie ne TS 


CHAP, 46: ROOFS. | BRE cated O88 Bg Rg i 149. 

“hot seem that the Architecteannot design anything. aor es the. 
“main cornice. Magnificent buildings, Like. the former GOURh ss 
Theatre in Dresden, require something more than a formless and 
gigantic roof with two lightning rods. Amid its. animated gur-— 
roundings, with the outlines of the Court ‘Church and. GL they oc 
Palace with its tower, the heavy. mass of. the eld Theatre ap 
peared very badly. ‘Among the many noble buildings on he Al 
Street in Vienna, the Town Hall with its well developed roof 

' appears far more. advantageously than the New Mus | 5 
look as Licphey. had been burned, S 
We will next treat in detail the. following: > ‘tne 6B 

walls; 2, forms of roofs; 3, The root Dabber 

ees &, ridge-towerg. 6, Chimneye; He 
gables or péediments. pete 
deco The Batter of Walls. ae 
Enclosing walls are properly battered, that th 
may flow off on that side” where Feast: ene 
- exterior next the. street, i 
ter are usually provided. ole 
the Ae re eee oF the wall. 
ee men te. 


pa Fee nS 


We 


Ree prinetga: forng) of nooks are. the aes 
gable. roof and. pysamidal Bip Poot. ( 
ed as Pequired. ) root. . 
ad ot @ gable or hip roof may join. another peule on at 
| favorite form for the roofs: of towers. Inclinati 


ends of a hip roof my be ; steeper. ‘than ral ntdes 
It now frequently becomes ‘necessary to employ. 
Bed Poof and the curved mansard for angle. pavilions 
ee ‘These. forms: are alan teed ested al, 
geronony, 8} 


| one. ee esthetic peas gnay : roebh peeceeae pnt surface 
= miu also be used, as for. Se ee licne ‘ons € 


cradess 


_eclor should tnen be arranged along the upper and lower. Cc 
of tile roofs in patterns of all kinds, with ridge tiles oh 
spectal forms or suitable finials at the apex of tne. roof. 


are always proper, as well as fintals of ‘those ES SLE on the 
ridges Gf roofs. 7 ; 3 | 


5 CHAP, 19. ROOFS. (TEAS S260. 
trades maks the building appear low, jow ones high. Balustra-- 
des can ecarcely be lower than 3 ft, as tneir purpose would 
not then be fulfilled. If tnese balustrades are arranged ta 
eonnection with pedestals supporting atatues, thess mus t be so 
designed ag to praduce a suitable sky-line. ny 

3. Tne Roof Covering. 

Care must be taken that the roof covering abt. OnLy falftis 
its purpose, but also has a pleasing effect. Even thatched — i 
straw reofs may be made pleasing by the mode in which the bun- 
dles of straw are fastened. Tne roof coverings of rustic buil. 
dings usually have a picturesque efiect; sometimes consisting | 
of stone slabs ef trregular form, when plates” of porphyry or 

thin slabs of Jura limestone are used; goméetimes of shingles . 
held down by gtones. Moss and all kinds of plants, which, grow 
cn Proofs, frequently appear very picturesque, although not ver 
y beneficial to wood-work, Sy cutting tne lower ends of the 
shingles, many kinds of patterne are iorméd on shinglesroofs, 
but care is necessary that the shingles be of such forms that ~~ 
the water may bé kept-as far away from the joints as possible. . 
Tiis roofs take various forms when tne vertical joints are con 
tinuous or alternate, when the tiles are set in bond or not. 
Their forms furtner depend on the forms of the! lower énds of 
the tiles, as well aS whether tiles of any ake 3 Pee 
are us@d. 

The ridgs. and eaves” of the roof alwaya require special eres” 
cautions to prevent entrance of Water and to properly remove — 
it. These. parts also first require decoration, whatever the 
covering of the roof may be. Borders of tiles of different. 


In slate pocfs, the most picturesque effect is obtained. byt. 
laying the slates in diagonal coursés on close sheathing. By 
using slates eut to certain forms, the most varied surface pat 
t3rngs are produced, which may be. enhanced by slates of differ- 
ent ecclors. Borders along the ridge and eaves and bands Bn 8 
ound dormer windows are always decorations peculiarly appropri — 
ate for roof surfaces. The ridges of slate roofs are most sui — 
tably covered with metal, and erestings of perforated plates, 
cr hammered work, of cast lead and zinc, or of wrought iron, 


* 


4, Dormer Wingows.: : he Aen Cork 
A kind of gtory ig often arranged in the roof, especially 
mansard TOOIB, | and Maes by. Speke windows. ‘These eat be. 


4, 


eye et 


CHAP.) FO) OOP SR Sy te 3 wey z. AL” ‘1b 4. 

an architrave between pilasters, which support an entablature 
and a pediment, and its base can be made wider by volute-like 
additions at each side, Fig.400 a, b, ¢, d; Fig.401 a, by oy 
They may then be properly grouped’ with. the: second etory windws 

Large dormer windows aré sometimes required for heisting | 
weignts by a crané, when in a ware- nouge. They tnen peceive 
@ strongly projecting roof, in which the erane is fixed, Jane 
are closed by wooden shutters, which may be decorated by bands 
cf wrought fron. Dormer windows. generally serye to light and 
ventilate the arttic; they may be decorated by ornamental gab- 
le roofs or left quite plain. Wooden gable roofs of church 
spires are trequently decorative expedients of chief importane - 
and may be connected together, to facilitate fastening the ro- 
pes required for the slater’ s. work, The dormer windows of how 
ses and ci public buildings may be circular, semicircular or 
elliptical, or may be of the most varied forms. “They sheuld. 
have an architrave and some form of cresting, | which is freq-. 
uently made of sheet Zinc. Dormer and roof windows: ate ec add 
mueh to the decorative effect of se ea ohn , 

5. Chimneys. | 

In a fully developed srehiteptural style, ‘one must not for- 
get to give the chimneys a plea sing form, and to so arrange © 


\ 
ee 


_.them-that the general eifect of the puilding may not be injur- 


ed. They should then have bases, with caps at top for tne dis 
charge Oi smoke. The form of this cap always depends» On its 
special mede of. construction, — av is proper to. give the chim- 


ney a twisted form and to unite several chimneys ini group, 


covering the whole by a roof. of thin metal to. keep out. Pain. 
Thig roof may be pleasingly treated in. various ways , be decora 
ted by small gables, or be formed like a crown.) oy Reet 
8. Decorations of Roofs. ey Te 
“Among the decorations of reofs, the cresting is here. gpecial 


OLY: considerad, and may be executed in wrought iron, cast” Zine, | 
or hammered sheet. copper, and is generally arrangéd as a créegt 


ing on the ridge of the roof; the fintals are of the samé ma = 
terials, in the form of. gprays” of flowers, weataer cocks, cros. 
ses, ‘animals and all other forms, and decorate the angles of, 
roofs and especially towers, Few general principles may be 
laid down for thése crestings and finials, the greatest free- 
dom in their treatment being admissible. — They produce tne — 
most pleasing effect if partly painted black,. partly gilded, 
and by their open appearance afford the mest beneficial eon - 
trast to the massive character of the root surfaces. © 
| 9%. The Pediment or Gable. 

Pediments or gables form: the. end ‘surfaces of sable. ‘poofs. 
They are either closed, as in antique temples, and decorated) 


Wag worked ‘out in*«stone construction; construction in brick 


but the further development, of these and other eiements: first 
took place in stone construction, as wel} as the fixing of eB. 


. struction could be used; resistance to tentios seldom comés. ins 


verse strain. — The Slenen ts: of stone construction are always 


A ccd et ee ee ae MS art Ss rec ode EN Soe rH OD Rare a aS AINE AIT chk ett eC peperemene re eis diate sets ee romeeh Rg 


CHAP, "18; ROOFS. | B.A, 152. 
bY Ornamental sculptures, or tney are Bote od by windowg of 
circular or other form, which lignt the interior of the roof; 
tney may furtner be clogséd by an open staircass, one long side 


Of tac building being connected with the otner, as in some Ro - 


manesque cnourehnss. In houges and palaces, they {requently econ 
tain one or more rooms, and then haye windows; they are some- 
times decorated in the richest manner and divided into seysral 

stories. Their outlines consist of the two inclined lines cf, 
the same inclination as the roof, or these are stepped tosap- 
pGar to form ‘battlements: from the last were derived the rich- 
ly decorated gables of the Cerman Renaissance, etre ornamental ; 
accessories of all kinds. i 

The most antural mode of devoratian ee ee: mata. the ‘two. ends - 
and the centre most prominent by acroteria and sculptured Géco _ 
rations: all modes of loading the ends heighten the. apparent 
gtability, although seldom really increasing tt" ‘and the acro-- 
teria at the centre satisfies an egthetic need. an very tas ; 
gables, as these of churches, these free-ending | forms require 
considsrably proportionate height; gable crosses, finials. Tig? 
ures, and similar motiyes may then be employed. Tae gaolé.is 

| 


ecvered by a cornice, that. may sometines be decorated by crock 
ets, like Gothic, or it may be resolved into free and fanciful — 
forms, as in German Renaissance, p. Both, ‘arPra angements are propep | 


the first being most suite ble. for buildings of: earnest ee dig 
nified appearance, churches, museums, opera houses; etc.; tne 
second, fer those intended to have a character of greater. ma g - 
ni ficence, 2S chateaux, theatres, comle. waite: | Ste. 


Chapter 20. SOOnd trie ton in Various Materials. 

1. Stone. Construction. Wea ag 

This ig the most menumental and: wortay Biurecaton of Aponi< 
tecture, and at the same time is the most expsnsiys 'mcedé of 

construction. The true historical development. of. Architecture 


and wood only approximated in other materials to. the forms and 
motives already e@xisting in stone construction, — It is. indeed 
true that in various places, stone construction was firgt dev- 
eloped fromwood construction, borrowing thence most of its 
forms, as the entablature, the columns, and the gable roof; 


thette preportions. The resistance of. gtone to crushing and : 
transverse strain prescribed the limits within which sgtons. cor 


consideration, except as it may occur in a beam under trans- 


2 


CHAP. 20, CONSTRUCTION IN’ V. MATERIALS. E.A. 153 
monolithic beams of stone, pillars, slabs, ashlars and vousg- 
‘soirs. All architectural construction is arranged with refer- 
ence to these. Although a greater firmness is given to stone 
construction by the use of mortar, it must itgelf be so arran- 
géd that the different parts of the structure are in stable 
equilibrium It is always characteristic of stone constructin 
that the elements of its structure are always within certain 
limits, depending on the thickness of the layers. of the atone. 
us quarried, that congidserable proj ection of the cornices is | 
possible, and that the mode of cutting also. aids in the effect 

The use of different qualities of stone may strongly charac- 


térize stone construction. Harder stonss should then be used J. 


for the structural portions, and softer ones for the masses of 
the walis, Tne water tables, string courses and eornices, ar- 
chitraves of openings in walls, supports, and the remaining 
cut stone work, will be clearly distinguished from the masonry 
proper. MPhis is also true for walls plastered externally, or 
if stones of equal hardness and strength but of different eol-- 
orgs, like red and white sande tone, are employed in a structure - 
Tne rarer kinds of stone should then be uséd for architectural 
details proper and the mors common kind. for thé masonry. This 
further dépendgs - on the. ease Of working the stone and the text- 
ure of the material. If two kinds of stone are cf equal hard- 
ness, cone mugt then decide in accordance. with: the character of 
the building, which. of the. ‘two shall predominate. Red sandston 
in mass gives the building an earnest, gloomy. character; white 
imparts a. eheerful and: brighter one. Darker. stone requires 
ieeataer: forms than lighter:stone, = = = Le aes 
a 2. (Brick Construction. 6 Aka Sa pee 
. The character Cf brick. construction | is: determined by the 
smal} dimensions of the elements, by the intimate connection 
of the mass, and by tne slight projection of string courses ani 
and cornices, — okt therefore always produces works, Which are. 
massive, have small members. and proportionally slight: relief, 
Two styles have been developed in brick construction, the nor- 
thern mediaeya) brick architecture of the low northern plains 
“with the allied Bavarian and Dutch, and the brick arenitecture 
of Upper. Italy. The first may ‘De: termed brick architecture 
with moulded. bricks the second, “that employing terra cotta. 
The northern style. seldom used” terra cotta, a great favorite ae 
in that of Upper Italy. Both styles isad to peculiar forms — 
and both may be™ combined, “or are already combined in the brick 
architecture of Upper Italy, tails style -using both moulded 
bricks and terra cotta. The @ifference between moulded bricks 
and terra cotta ccensista in this, that the latter is modelled, 
cast, or era in moulds, and therefore admits: of flat and 


nBEOas roe oes cea en OR icay OS ee 


CHAP, 20. CONSTRUCTION IN VAR. MATERIALS. B. i LBA, 
broad forms, such as portions of friezes and {reel ynmodelled 
sculptured crnaments, wea le mouldéd bricks are properly only 
profiled bricks, so that the first style omits nearly all orna 
mental and sculptured EPR but uses enamelled and color 
6d bricks and sometimes ornamental blocks cary ed from sundried 
clay and afterwards burned. aay 

Howsver pl¢asing the eOMER of nortnern ‘médiaeval and of Lom- 
bard or Sienese brick architecture, Witn gar improved condi- — 
tions of transportation, a pure prick architectures, omitting 
al] cut stone, is now only advisable ina certain localities. 
Where cut stone may be readily obtained, it will usually be oo 
preferred to bricks, these per oe used only ar #08 ky as 
Pee , , Hihe, 

3. Mixed. Stone BAD Brick Gousuena ven 

wate orick is the ordinary building. material, and cutrieLes 
cut sfone may be obtained for the principal architectural 8g 
tails, a mixed stone and brick construction will be used, like 
that commonly found inthe Netnerlands and there developed ins 
a peculiar way. All string courses and cornices are there 
made cf cut. stone, a block of stones being built. in at the 
decors and windows, wherever iron anchors he to be fixed <r 
hee door ‘or window frames... a ae 

In a more developed form of mixed steng: fond: brick construct- 
ion, the brick-work is entirely limited to the Masonry or wal] 
the. jambs of doors and windows and all otner. gtructural parts. 
being of cut stone. But projections for. strengthening the 
wal] may be built of brick on. account of its stronger. bond, 
while their capitals and bases are of cut stone. Ia isolated 
piers, it is best to interrupt the brick masonry at Pegular in: 
tervals by cut bond stones to. give them. greater strength. eee, 

The mixed stone and brick architecture of many Dutch puild-— ‘ 
ings of the Middle Ages and Renaissance is quite refined, sande: 
tnoere is in it a certain intention of producing a special ef- 
fect by contrast of colors of white sandstone and deep red 
bricks. No opportunity is lost. for. decorating springing and 
key stones, or for interrupting. brick masonry by courses of 
cut stone, placed at the same neight as tne window sills or 
transoms, Fig.402, the brickymasonry forming closed panels. 
These. expedients give the mixed stone and brick architecture ¢ - 
Of Holland its peculiar effect, and form the most simple and 
ready general méans of. obtaining @ good. effect economically. 

4. Woed Construction. f hae ah 

In wood ise Ae since the resiatance Of the material 
to compression, tra neverse strain, and tension, is exerted, 
elementary structural forms result, entirely different from 
those used tn stone construction. ‘Horizontal timbers sree) 


CHAP, 20. CONSTRUCTION IN VAR MAPERIALE. B.A. 155. 
transverse strain are Beams, Sills, Purlines and Girts. Vert- 
‘ical supports are Posts, inclined ones being Struts and Braces 
all subject to compression. Horizonta 41 timbers subject to tén 
sion are Tie-beams, vertical ones being King or Queen Posts. 
The most fully deyeloped wooden architecture known to us, is | 
that cf Swiss and Tyrolese houses, the former being preferably 
built of logs, the latter having a timber {frame lined inside. 
The strongly projecting gable roof, the open galleries, tne . 
low stories with their numerous windows, lend to these wooden 
houses their characteristic appearance, that varies greatly in 
éach building by means cf carved worksof all kinds, Curr? 
the abundance of wood in Alpine countries. 

German wooden architecture chisily us¢e half- timbered work, 
interspaces being usually filled with. bPick-work; a projection 
ef @ach story beyond that next.below and steep genie roofs 
characterize these houses, better adapted to the North. Taese. 
half-timbered bufldings with interspaces filled with brick ma- 
sonry, either plain or plastered, acquire a peculiarly Rees 
effect when decorative brick bonds are employed. — 

5. Mixed Wood and Stone Construction. = = «. 

The basement story frequently has a plain wall, especially 
if the upper story is half- timbered. The external appearance 
of the building then depends on the materials and the mode of 
construction employed, as well as on tne painting, sgraffito, 
decorations in wrought tron; overlays of tiles,.étc. Neither 
pure wooden architecture nor mixed construction in stone and 
wood ig suitable for monumental buildings, both > ‘being better 
adapted for rustic dwellings, modest city houses, etc. | 

‘This mixed style is well. guited® for small railway stations, 
forester's houses, country inns, for all structures attachec . 
to the drinking room at Baths and Spas, and a peculiar charac- 
ter should be given to theses, corresponding to local condit- | 
fons. This mixed style will also be used for. ‘temporary gtruc-. 
tures, for festivals, and “for bans Y) purposes, etter which, 
they are to be. removed. eumhiet i une eater ee 

a Bool Metall te Gong truction.. ee SRT ak) Ge axrce : 
fa this, only buildings of wrought or cast iron. require ecn- 
sideration. Bronze, cn account of its cost, was: ‘seldom used, 
except in the calssic period, and then but exceptionally as & 
special structural material. But ircn plays an. important part. 
{in modern architectural construction. Its most. extensivé use 
eceurs in ratlway stations, buildings for International Exhio-— 
itions, bridges and roof trusses. In accordance with tae Pes- 
isting properties of iron, 211 iron structurés should have a. { 
character of lightness; compression is principally resisted by 
columns and Seater cf cast or wroug shit Higa transverse strain 


—_——= ~ ee 
i 3 


a Rightes : Oe ‘sa oh RB 9nd 2 ioe a, 


CHAP, +20. CONSTRUCTION IN VAR uarmericks 
by Wrought iron girders, and tension by wrought iroa® tr: 
rods. The walls and roofs are principally compoe eu Os Thin 
plates, if not constructed of masonry cr wood in Cémbinati¢ 
with iron, or are glazed. The general harsher combapee: 
of .1roy buildings results from an. 6ndearct for economy 01 
erial and labor, which requires each structural part, to Hew: 
the smallest possible dimensions. The stronger t le construct - 
fon, the less attention should be paia™ ‘to. its: artistic appear- 
anes,.and it BHO ve leit to produce its own effect. But ine 
smal | structures, small view pavilions, garden houses, or rail 
way Stations, care should be especially taken to decorate | 
parts in cast iron, and also to use wrought iron ‘oPnaments of — 
all kinds. The same ig true for iron enclosing fences, latti- 
ced gates, monuments, canopies over wells, and similar. objects 
Perforated and hollow forms are suitable for cast beads and 
for thin bars and plates of wrought iron. i 

7. Mixed Metallic, Stone,and Wood Construction. 

A building may properly ie constructed of stone, wood, and _ 
iron; as in very large rooms, the walls are built ‘of masonry, 
while the roof is wholly cr in part of iron, wood being employ 
ed for receiving tne covering material. Each material is used 
in such buildings, the massive character of the masenry pleas- 
ingly contrasting with. the lignt and graceful iorms of the i- 
ron construction. Massive stone bridge portals thus haye 2 
better etfect, than if made of cast iron, as the proeéss of 


: Casting necegsarily requires the avoidance of a massivs charac 


ter; buildings for Industiral Exhibitions, conservatories, and 
similar structures, are more pleasing if in part built. oi ms- 
onry, than if rely eons Aare of galse and “phe i 


Chapter él. “Planning Buildings. a 

Al] modes of arranging the plan result from "subdivision. or 
addition, a given area of surface being either divided into 
parts, or such parts are arranged together. ; 

A series of rooms are placed next the facade of a euees be- 
tween two adjacent ones, the. rena ining apartments adjoining — 
the former. In a detached dwelling or a villa, one commences 
with the largest apartments, the drawing- -room or living-room, 
the other rooms being arra anged with reference to these. Lo 
the first case, one designs from the front towards the rear pel 
the gite, in the second, one first groups the interior and 
then arranges the exterior. If the house occupies a corner, 
two series of rooms are arranged along its fronts, either pla- 
cing the principal apartment at the angle, or: this: angle is di 
vided into smaller rooms, just as may best accord | with the re- | 


‘quirements. A series of. principal apartments should always: BSA 


\ 


arranged 


ag : 


a 


CHAP. 21. . PLANNING BUILDINGS. E.A. 157. 
arranged along the chief. facades of publicbuildings, if the 
structure does not. contain a large nall, when the otner rooma 
will de grouped around this. A corridor is often placed beh- © 
ind this series of chief apartments to make the rooms accessi- 
ble. In public buildings the arrangement will therefore pro- | 
eréss from front to rear, but in buildings containing halls, 
comprising theatres and churches, it will be from the interior. 
to the exterior, To make. the best use of the site, the. plan. 
is always to be so arranged, that. the corridors may occupy as 
little space as possible; but in many buildings, like schools, 
the corridors not only serve as a means of acéeas to the room 
but aré algo occupied by the pupils during intervals between. 
classés, and by cas@s eontaining books, models, collections, 
6tc., when they assume a etre igs ge that ADELA 
the plan. ap 

Space is always lost in ventibiles, stairs, passages, ee 
oné should therefore make this loss as small as possible, and 
in very large public buildings, the loss of time must also be 
considered, resulting from the connection of the different 
wings of the building by corridors, courts, . ete. One should. 
then arrange near each other-rooms properly belonging togetnep 
and thake their communication moré dtrect by privates staifs, 
corridors, etc.. Oné should also try to make vestibules, cor- 
Tiders, and courts as useful as ‘possible, to serve for tempor- 
ary occupancy by persons, and should therefore arrange light 
courts with»glass roofs, galleries of all kinds, and loggtas. 

‘& Sections ci Buildings. A 

If the eights of stories are fixed, the cross sections of 
bulldinge are governed by the ‘arrangement of the plan. The 63 
sential part ‘of modern architecture concerning the section is 
this, taat only in exc@ptional cases resulting fan ee form: 
Ot the site or from special uges, is any floor not arrangéd 
throvghcut on the same level, as Was the case in’soO many media 
eval. buildings. Yet when peculiar arrangepents make it Weces-— 
Sary, some halle are made lower or higher than the general 
neight of the gtory, and must either extend below or above it, 
When the conditions of the sits are peculiar, as in mountain 
cities or cagtles, the site lgually produces very peculiar ar-. 
Panyements of stories, wherein should be utilized these condi- 
bicne of the ground, » It may then become necessary to abandon 
a1} rules and take into account the special case. But one 
should be careful to place as many rooms as possible on the © 
game level, and to retain the heights oj stori¢s ENS saree 

a Facades and Court-Facadeés. * — Rio 

The facade is essentially derived . from: the ree Hee the. sect 
ion. Openings for decors anu windows, porticoss, loggias, tow- 


peers “Khe” 


Pol ae” 


Ta 


ca. Megs 


CHAP. 21. PLANNING BUILDINGS. B.A, 188, 
towers, ete., chiefly determine the arrangement of the facade, 
the importance cf thé building, and the detail forms of the 
facade. It is required that the exterior regults from the in- 
terior, and that it corpesponds in every respect to tne purp- 
cse@ of the structures, with which the selection cf building ma- 
terials and structural forme must be in strict accordance. 

Facadeés towards courts are generally ef a subordinate char-- 


oa yet the courts are often developed into magnificent ar- 


hitectural works, and may be decorated by galleries, loggias, 


Bas and staircase towers, bay windows, balconies, porticoes 
niches, fountains, or any otner means of ornamentation. But 


a& court must appear well from the most distant point ci view 
pessible, and according te whetner the court encloses a garden 
or affords a fine view, its arrangement must be such as to ae 
tilize these advantages as fully a8 posetble. a 7 
Chapter 22, Wells” ‘and Fountains. | 
Exeept ing monuments, the most beautiful and ‘suitable wore 
tions of public squares are wells and fountains. — Market squa- 
res require cleanliness and therefore fountains, which are = 
merely water outlets witn a large tank, its centre occupied oy — 
a pedestal supporting a large ghell, & canopy, a statue or . 
group of statues, or a tower-like structure like ‘the Sehéne 
Brunnen, Nuremberg. There are geyeral other types of wells oF - 
fountains, such as : 1, tae well, well-nouse, a x“ | the enclosed | 
spring; 4, the running fountain 3, epringiwollg and yn Rsa 
4, cascades and otner similar works. ; ae : 
al. Wells etc. a mek Fee. . | 
Wells are yertical circular isha tte sunk ‘to the waver level) 
in the sartn, sometimss several hundred . feet deep, They are 
furnished with a curb at top, an arrangement of gone. ine re 
raising the water, tais. being merely a picket. and ehain, ©: soe 
pump, if the depta of the well is small. The well eurb must 
be so formed that the fail: bucket may. be get upon th and its 
exterior may be decorated by reliefa. The finest ‘examples: ‘of. 


‘such cures are the bronze ones in the court of tne Doge's Pal- 


ace, Venice, internally eireular and externally octagonal, 

The shaft of the well is. even esthetically treated sometimes 
as a winding staircase with an open well-hole, in tne lower 
part of this being a basin for collecting the water. 

The bucket is generally sugpenued by a chain running ‘over a: 
pulley, which may be supported in any suitable way, a series 
of motives being producéd and executéd in various places: “Sau 
vagect gives a beautiful well with two buckets supplying dif- i 
ferent levels, Fig.411l. Two. piers of different heights sup- 
port a horizontal stone beam strengthened at its CORES: ‘py dee 


e Bests CHAP. 42. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. B.A, 159. 
decorations, wnere tne pulley ig fixed. Free terminals above 
the stone piers are addéd to ornament ‘the stone beam Wells 
of thisxkind are not rare in cloisters of [talian monasteries,» 
are usually placed at the centre, and are raised seyeral setops 
But they may also be attached to a wall into wnich is built 
the end of the beam, tne otner end being supported by a colum 
Fig.412. This motive may be turned to a good account by mak- 
ing the beam quite long and arranging so that one can pass a- 
round the well, Fig. 413. [It will then be advisable to place a 
eorbe] between the beam and its supporting pillar. if the 
wel] igs distant from the wall, the stone beam my be. replaced - 
by anliron bar let into the ton supporting the pulley. 

.~ A further devclopment of the well is produced by placing a. 
‘strong covering slab above three or more pillars supporting | 
the pulley. The centre of the covering slab may be strengthes 
6d, which originates the motive of accenting this centre by 
decorations, as well as by other ornaments placed above the 
pillars, Statues, ete.; the German Renaissance produced many 
such wells, the motive even being impr ov ed by wrought tron 
work. This motive of the canopy well is déyeloped in. larger. 
designs into a small: polygonal structure, Fig. 414. : ee 

An 6xample, thcugh simpler than the one ‘represented, is foud 
near the: Chureh at Veere, Holland, where rain water jsecol lect 
ed on the roof of the church, led into a ehannel B running a-. . 
Pound the well, depositing there the impurities, while the pu- | 
rPified water Pune into the collecting basin A through the nar- — 
row slits, as shown in Fig.415. ‘The channel B and the tank A 
may be made accessibbe by winding steps. Tne pulley for the 2 
bucket chain is suspended from the keystone of the vault. In - 
very deep wells the weight of the chain and buckets is too | 
great for the chain to be simply drawa up by hand, 2 windlass 
then being substituted for the pulley, and\ supported by two 
bearings. A wheel is attached to the axle, turned by both | 
hands, while the chain is wound up on the axle. ‘Pane raising 
of water by machinery requires protection by a roof, that. iron 
parts may be exposed to rust as little as possible. — ‘The iat 
is then detached and covered by a protecting roof. 

Well-houses are usually employed where a spring is tréateds 
like a well, placed under a roof, then enclosed to serve for. 
drinking. and to turn away the gurface water. Mineral jsprings” 
require special attention on both points. Where naturally hot 
Water is obtained in such quantity as to be uged © for economi- — 
eal purposes. as wel) as for drinkingsand baths, public foun- 
tains are usually arranged as niches in the walls, and the out 
lets for the water are closeéi- by stop-cocks. Specia!) drinking 
halls are generally prannec, where the Water is drunk. | 


CHAP. 8&2. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. EA. 160. 

OtKer designs for fountains are arrangéd like small open 
buildings, where water runs from on® basin into another lower 
one, ther into a tnird, ete., to remove every vestige of im- 
purity. ©. aie Scht wvmsalt sein fe oe 
Larger designs for springs consist of an open basin with a 


channel for removing superfluous watér and one descends to the | 


basin from higher ground bY a flight of steps, 

Between wells and flowing fountains are pump-wells, which 
are séldom public wells, but are found in courte of private 
housés, and are seldom decorated. The well. {a then covered by 
a stone slab, at the center of which stands the usually woodén 
pump with swing handle, though tne. ‘pump is also made of stone 
or of cast iron, then being treated | like a stone pillar witha. 


ee a cap and terminal ornament, or 48 4. east {ron eolumn with any — 


form of capital, supporting a statue, a lamp, or terminal orna— 
ment. The pump handle may. be decorated at its upper end by” 
volute-like iren bands, to prevent its sWinging sidewiss. Be-- 
low the spout, often. treated 1iké a rain spout in form of a 
lion’s head, a dolphin’s or dragon's head, @tc., is the tank, 
most simply a hollowed stone block, but tn more pleasing des- 
igns a vase-like basin resting on the vase of the punp, and” 
crosaéd at top byiiron. rods to receive the water va} Fig. 416. 
&  kunning Fountains. = 

Fhese chiefly differ from wells in ‘peing supplied by 2,qus- 
ducts or springs, the water being lea through a system of pip- 
es {trom @ reservior higher than the outlet opening. “They are 
either wall-fountains or detached fountains. | The former are 
eten placed in courts and are niche - fountains, the front side 
of tne tank proj ecting but. little from the wall, Pig.417. An 
architraye like that of a door decorates the niche, ‘and this 
may be developed into a canepy with pilasters, columns, pedi- — 
mentg, ete. , while the front of the tank affords space for any 
ferm of decoration in relief. In -eircular niches, the upper. 
part ig decorated like a shell, @ horizental band betag car- 


ried agound it at the height of the springing, or tae discharg — | 


pipe may be connected with a statue. The fountains ta the | 
courts of Italian palaces and sacristies of churehes are most- 
ly treated in accordance with the game principle, the tank be- 
ing composed of, or coverei with marbie slabs, 2nd sometimes 
cast in bronze. Another arrangement of wall fountains is to 
have the ‘tank in front of the plane of the wall, making the 
niche shallow; tnis would be quite. suitable for the angle ate 
two streetea meeting at an acute angle, Fig. 418. . 
A third arrangement, particularly adapted to be placed under 
landings of stairs or ramps, — for: terraces, aquaria or fish 


sponds , lighted ae above is. tquarranse a fell -nousé as an 
cue Ss a 


¢ 


CHAP, 22. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. B.A. 181. 
enlarged niche. These three modes may oe varied in many ways 
and treated in accordance with the décoration of niché-fount- 
ains, they may be developed into grotto buildings of all kinds 
Imitations of stalactites, tufa, glittering minerals, shelis, 
figures spouting water, delphinas and dragons, silenusés and 
Gentaurs, etc. serve be decorate such grotto degigns. 

The simpl¢ést form of détaéhed fountain may be treated. like 
pump-wells. In richer designs the number of water basin: and 
discharge openings would be increased, and a eorresponding au: 
form ofj plan selected, Fig.420. The most ‘varied forms are es- — 
pecially possible ina larger market fountains, whetner basins _ 
are placed in several tiers above each other, or a common bas- 
in is formed. The upper basin may algo be accessible by means 
of steps, Fig. 421. | 3 

Various simple and combined polyacuat: pane Fig. 422, ‘may ‘ve 
employed to gcod advantage as such market— fountains, and mY 
vary according to whether they are connected with stairs, 
e6atgs, or gas lamp-posts, or whether an Upper group. of Bahee 
shells is formed in addition to the common tank. 

As-meéeans of decorating these and other désigns of founts ins, 
all animal, plant, and purely decorative forms are suitable, — 


; if they havé reference to Wak Oty The front. side of the basi rat 
may have reliefs of all kinds; the central pillar of the foun- 


tain, Fig.423, consists of a plain rectangular, eircular or 
polygona! beady a, mostly in the water, a second b contains the 


discharge pipes and may be decorated by inscriptions, coats of 


arms, rélisfs, etc. — Above. this is placed a base ¢, its plan 
suited to that of the lower portion, and above a cap, this may 
bear a statue: or group of statue, a canopy- -like structure, or 


a lamp-post d. Tne upper basins may be formed as. vessels or 


shells; care must be taken that théy do not appear too massive” 
when seen from below. — [tts ca favorite idea’ for market fount- 
aing to add water-spouting ‘statues in suitable places, @vén on. 
the margin of the basin, vo enclose the entire fountain by an — 
iron grille, arranged that a. pail may be filled. For this ae 
poss, portions of the base may be corbel led out for openings 
may be formed in the grille at proper places. , 
3. Spring Fountains and Fountains. i 

These serve a purpose purely decorative. and are only emp1oy-" 
ed in gardens. for obtaining water, and are ‘eonnect eq with bag-_ 
ins for gold fish or water plants. The simplest form consists 
of a vase-like shell on a pedestal; .ticher arrangements havs 
several shells above each other, the lower fed by tne upper. 


~The whole may be surrounded by a singl¢ basin. The shells may” 


be replaced by groups of shélls, and:the pedestals may be in 
form cf short columns, a clustered pisr, -h@y lower part Of a- 


CHAP, 22. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. © BA 162, 
vasé, or figure sculptures. Discharge openings take the form 
of simple tubes, flowers, mouths of animals, or may be connec 
ed with figures. The greatest latitude is possible in the — 
treatment, of fountains. A rich contrast of falling: and ~ risin 
streams of water, overflowing shell- like basings, scrolled. 
mouth-pisess at the discharge openings, sometimes give thess ae 
avery fine effect. They may also consist of an islet in a 
basin, naturistically treated and decorated by statues support 
ing the water basins; it may further be enelosed by a canopy- 
like structure, or may decorate and cool the interior of room 

| 4. Cascade Fountains. : 

These are purely deccrative and are architectural works, a 
which considerable volumes of water run. Phey may be purely — 
architectural, like the Aqua Paola in Rome, where three. great 
streams of water pour dow from & gate- like. atructure in front 
of a triumphal arch, and flow into 4 collecting basin. | Or. is 
front of an architectural back-ground ts constructed an arYrang 
ement ci natural or artificial rock-work, ffom various parts 
of which water gushes forth into a great basin, as in the Fon- 
tana Trevi at Rome. Such cascade fountains may be developed — 
greatly by sculptures and. plant decorations in connection with 
buildings, fiights of steps, bridges, grottoes, ete. The-wall 
enclosing the basin may be forméd as a seat, Pig. 424, ‘Ats- back 
having sufficient height, that a child standing on ‘the seat 
cannot fall into the water; the coping may. then de erownéd by ; 
@ low iron railing to prevent. anyone from climbing over the oe 
enclosure of the bag in. 1 4, 


va x i) ie a 
Mes Sas 


FA Chapter 34) Mon tieas a sities oS aa : 

Besides fountains, the principal ‘dbeersetone of etrests and 
squares are monuments, and we will eonsider memorial, “put not 
sepulchral monuments. A distinction. is also made in a monu- 
ment between the object to. be -supported. above” ‘the. ground, the 
pedestal, and the base or. foundation. According to the eS 
supported by the pedestal, we. Me SOLBE TES Is bees Mie teton ts | 
kinds of isolated monurn nents. : 

1, The object ccnsiats of emblems, a cross, an an OUBTI Bik. ora 
tower-like superstructure: 2, the pedestal ‘supports a pUst: 
3, it supports acatatue;: 4, it supports two statues; A it sup 
ports an equestrian statue; 8, the principal figure gtands/ on 
a pédestal surrounded by 4 cr & subordinate statues; 7, the 
monument is gurrounded by an architectural back-ground; 8, the 
monumsnt is purely esthetic, its decoration ae rschowce being 
subordinate, 

Tiere are twopprimary requirements for TOmuMen te of all 
kinds; they must have good proportions of mass, and if isolat-- 


6d 


CHAP. 43.. MONUMENTS. | BAe 183. 
ed, thefr outlines must. be pleasing. Both requirements are 
unfortunately seldom sattsfied, the training of the sculptor 

not being sufficiently architectural, ‘and he takes tne advics 
of the Architect only when: the idéa of the composition. has al- 
ready been decided upon. It should be a first condition of an 
arrangement according to the plan, Fig. 425, that the Statues 
at a should in seme way pe connectéd with the monument preper 
at b. In the Luther monument at Worms, all the statues look 
East, at right angles — to the axis of the street, which has an 


unpl easing: effect: the monument is. also not at- right: angles to 


the street, but parallel to it, “whi chimust :be.considered a 
migtaks, unlesa theymonument ts not Placed ino the middle Gi - 
tne street but stands at the gide. HR 

The proportions and tne effect of. the outlines. #1: always 


be decided by the. proportions betweer the pedestal and the ob: 


ject supported by the pedestal, waich fixes its plan. — iIfva 
eube rests on a shab and supports a pyramid, Fig. 425, the pro- 
portions of the masses viewed diagonally will be completely 


a changed, and may perhaps. be unpleas ing; had we drawn a cylind- 


er with height equal to its diameter supporting a cone, inst- 


ead of the cube and pyramid, its appearance would be the same 


from any point. If we employ a. form intermediate petween the 
two, we have two choices of a form for the monument, either tm 
the octagon, or the cress, Pig. ‘ART. Ctreular, “octagonal, or 
cross-shaped pedestals always look best if viewed diagonai! 
“ht.ia preferable to make the pedestal of such form as to pro- 
duce a gnadusl transition from the square to-the crogs, then 
to the® octagon, and finally to the circle. If we insert a cap 
between the cube and the pyramid, Fig. 428, its” projection will 
conceal a part of the pyramid and thus lessen’ ‘the object sup- 
ported by the pedestal. ‘Being really the principal. part of 
the monument, the pyramid ghould appear as large 28 possible, 


a spectal base then being given to it, whose mass is in a 


pleasing proporticn to the mass of the pyramid. | ort: the base 
be too massive, the pyramid looks small, and (tT too low, it 

does not appear ag a mass. | Tf an obelisk be made- the princi - 
pal part of the monument, Fig. 428, or a memorial eolumn inst - 


ead of a pyramid, the mass of the base would appear too unplea 


ping in proportion to the obslisk. | 
On this consideration is based the good and bad Shrancenenie 
of monuments. The proportion betweencob) ect and. pedestal is 


therefore ugualiy unpleasing, the pedestal being made too high 


and producing too massive an effect. It too frequently icoks 
like a tile stove. It will then always be proper to insert a- 
special base between the eap of the pedestal anc the principa 
object of the monument, thus lessening bn Ropes hetehy of the 


monument 


eT) ae 


CHAP, - 23. MONUMENTS. | io EA 164 

monument by a substructure divided in several parts. | 

A sécond point requires notice, that the padestal and the 
base of. the object must be so arranged with. reference te the 
cbject of the monument, to the treatment and the deccraticns 
in relief, that this obyeet. becomes. the principal thing, OF. 
that a contrast is produced between the treatment of the. base 
and thermore cr less détatled principal ‘object or gubject of 
the monument. An. equestrian statue thug harmonizes with a 
richly treated base above a more simply formed pedestal; nated 
ues with Prich drapery ‘or Pichly detailed cOs tumes: “@ atanding 
or couching lion, a dPagon-fight, etc. will require plain and 
simple canoe! and pedestals to retain. the. contrast. | Phe devel- 
opment of the architectural mouldinge | of the base and pedestal 
therefore essentially depends on the degree of detail in the 
principal object. To treat a monument as a sham fountain from 
which neo water flows is a ecarse ef fons bat apap ie external and 
internal truth of an art-work. OP Lae 

The ascending stéps, which form the gubstrueture. ‘of a MORE 
ment, should récall the steps of stairs. as. little.as possible, 
and they should therefore be so profiled, ‘that the rain water | 
may run off readily, and that - ‘their purpose may be apparent to 
the eye, Pig. 430. Inscriptions. are best with. rectangular — | 
cross ‘section of letters: incisions of. triangular g@cticn @a- 
sily becone illegible by exposure to Weather, _ ‘To arrange | | 
sGats On the monument itself 183 Amproper, a8 ate may easily be 
dé faced. But it is proper to place seats in the vicinity of 
the monument, that it may be geen with ease. — See 

[> en monuments whone principal subject consists of ‘emb lens 
or objects of any kind except statues, tne base and pédestal 
sheutd be arranged to harmonize therewith. ey ‘fine motive of. 
such monuments is the Obelisk Fountain at Carlerune, ‘Fig. 431; 
an cbelisk ig flanked by two griffing, /licne,— river - ~gods, ete, 
whose massive cblongppedestals project beyond the square oh 
the obelisk; the latter being utilized as a running. fountain, 
whose two baging: may project beyond the pedestal at its sides. 
The same motive of plan may be ‘ugéd in monuments with. statues. 

2. Monuments with busts usually have a proportionally: tall 
pedestal to recéive the inscription, to prevent this from nav- 
ing t©O massive an effect, a spectal base. may be inserted bet- — 
ween thé cap of the pedestal and the bugt. The bust may stand 
free, may be placed against the real wal Le" ‘of porticoés, om - 
my also be arranged as & memorial fountain. Busts ma y be aa 
tectéa from rain by a canopy-like structure, -- ~ 

oe ee care musé bé taken in détaemed monuments with 
etattes' that they have good propcrtions on all sides, ana that. 
they diminish property upwards. It ig then EOE er to ecver 


_ 


CHAP, 23. MONUMENTS, be BoA TOG 
the figures with mantles, thus concéahin “ the. space between — 
tne legs, to place ®mb 1 ems at the feet Of the figures, pedest- 
aig suppor ting an’arm of the figure, and similar accessories, 
-“*Y wWoniech give the chief objsctia broad ba Séeated figurés — 
tisrefore often appear better than ft. ahding,. th ppetrower 
portions being Wieéder. In sonagente MB stag Yihe pedest- — 
ais usually look¥tco bread when viewéd ‘i genallf, ‘ale thew 
, snglesiare vt hgeftone bus ual lyf truncated, Fig. 432, In more: rich 
ly detailed pay easels the angles“are. flanked by pilasters CLoey: 
slight proj aR io ; and an éntablature is ingerted Between Ro 
rag ir capitals and the cap. A 
4. Monuments with two statues ee require anvabione” pea 
Cs tel, its wider side being in front. This frons then requi- — 
rés, not to seem to empty, to. be broken up by reliéis, inscir- 
bed tablets, and similar accessoriés, Figs. 433 and 434 Repe ee 
sent the base of such a monument at Ceneéva,. 
&. Equestrian statues also need oblong pedestals, ‘put their : 
éndg are turned in front. The bold mass of the bedy of the 
horse forms an esthetic contrast to. the pedestal, aga ORS 
base angle statues may be placed. see aoa 
| 6. “One of the most. commonly. employed ‘types or snonument x is. 
r¢ that with a central statue gurrounded by four. angle. figures. 
Pua An inereased deve lopment ‘in height eceurs, in. guch’ monuments, 
as well as a pyramidal enlargement downwards. It is prefera- 
ble to make the pedestal lower also, placing the -prineipal 
statue on a separate base, >: Most seated anelg: statues 
alse have separate bases, — ae 
Four subordinate gtatues are gomet nee placed! between the 
angle Statues, or groups of emblens, coats of. arms, and other 
symbolical or ‘decorative accessories, which. may be so arranged . 
as tO Separates the lower part of the pedestal from the upper 
by a cap, and the bass is independently developed, so that the | 
upper part becomes a low frieze, flat or decorated by relists. — 
The mass of the pedestal can ‘thus be. more» richly treated, and 
its beauty of proportion be increased by these subdivisions. | 
fae ‘phe treatment and proportions of architectural back - | 
grounds of monuments must be arranged in accordance with the. 
monumént, whén they serve ag a foil to ‘heighten its importance 
The architectural surroundings of a monument may be arranged 
and tréated in the most varied Ways; not too large a scale 
Will always be preferable, that the monument may bé as promi - 
nent agpossible. Michgel Angelo well understood how to make 
the gtatues themselves. more ee ey the: smal! scale of tne 
architectural back-grounds. _ : 
| Tasers remaing a word to be said Ae ead to monuments. not. 
\ géetached or isolated: They are genera tty gy cas as nhebes 
be monuments | | 


¥ 


i. 


x 5 4 


t Re Rad, be Ad we iY ae Bet agit 
CHAP. 23. "MONUMENTS. Sa hs “Mahe 186, 

monuments attached to a wall, the Kronimevtine: of the niche 
forming the principal motive. of their architectural. ‘Urga tment. 
The mctive of the triumphal arch was frequently ye to good 
purpose in the more extensive designs of. this kind. Four ni- 
ehés, Sach containing a statue, are also combined in a détach 
ed monument, that terminates at top in‘some form of roof. F. 436 

8. “Purely architectural monuments are usually arranged ina 
few ground types as memorial columns, tower-like Lethe Map 
témple-like buildings, and statues arranged about &@ contral - 
‘point. The mémorial pillar of slender proportions may take 
the most varied forms; in larger designs, it ig usually ‘treat- 
ed as a column with a capital, its abacus aceessible by a wind 
ing staircase. Tower - like monamente: are. either solid, or arra 
anged to serve as towers of observation. : 3 ne 

These may also be treated in various ways, ‘Beoordl ae” to. to. 
cation. The substructure contains the entrance to the stair- 
case (or an elevator, ‘as in the towers of the Trocadero, Paris 
and gometimes forms an extended aPchitectural design, gometi - 
mes. takes the form of an open. portico or that. of: a. ‘chapel, Fig 
437 a, or that of a eross-shaped. substructure b,. its. centre Ae 
-eceupied by. the. winding staircase. a se ‘the arrangement &, > tas 
‘pstaircase may be. placed din one of. the -apses and fire: ‘ecnnset- 
Pod. with the central staircase above the Wan lte.) o- 

We have characteristic examples of temple-1 ee and hea 
arranged plans in the Walhalla. and in the pe ae 
iar with whiten: are. to be. classed view pavil 


tions- t he freest ang. most. “pleasant probleas 6 
admitting of very numerous cone . 


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